The Role of Leibnitz (Leibniz) in the Creation of Scientific Schools in Russia.

By Victor Henri.

The translation of Weierstrass’s speech and the introductory remarks made by A. N. Krylov indicate, with extraordinary clarity and definiteness, that the organization and development of science are the only means that can raise the culture of a country, restore its strength, both internal and external, and lead it out of that state of universal ruin which we are now experiencing. This article reminded me that the significance which the sciences have in the development of the prosperity and culture of nations was advocated by no one so powerfully and with such consistency, over a period of fifty years, as by the greatest philosopher-scholar-jurist-philologist-historian-diplomat, Leibniz. This universal genius had a great influence on the implantation of science and, in general, of culture in Russia; during the last twenty years of his life, from 1696 to 1716, Leibniz was constantly interested in Russia, met with Peter the Great five times, including twice for several weeks, maintained a constant correspondence with a whole series of Russian statesmen, developed a plan for organizing an Academy of Sciences in Petersburg, sketched out a network of universities in Moscow, Kiev, and Astrakhan, indicated how secondary and higher education should be established in Russia, and posed a number of general fundamental questions that had to be resolved in Russia. Much of what Leibniz advised was in fact carried out by Peter the Great; thus, for example, on June 11, 1718, exactly two hundred years ago, on a report presented by Heinrich Fick, in which a plan was developed for organizing a higher collegium of sciences on the model of that which Leibniz had proposed many times, Peter the Great wrote: “Establish an Academy.” Likewise, Leibniz repeatedly pointed out to Peter the Great the necessity of finding out whether Asia was directly connected with America, or whether a strait existed; in the latter case it would be possible to communicate by sea between the eastern coast of Siberia and its great rivers; Leibniz often insisted on the need to organize an expedition to survey the shores of Siberia to the north of Kam-

[[unclear: ending of a word]], and in 1725 Bering’s expedition was organized, which led to the discovery of the Bering Strait.

But much of what Leibniz advised for Russia remains unfulfilled even now. The thoughts expressed by Leibniz are so clear and give such a general survey of the significance that the sciences have that it seems to me interesting to reproduce some of them.

Two definite directions must be noted in Leibniz’s activity. First, his chief concern was always concentrated on the development of the sciences and the arts; in this he saw the chief good of humanity; he placed this concern above national concern: “I distinguish neither nations nor fatherland; I prefer to strive for a great development of the sciences in Russia rather than to see them only moderately developed in Germany. The country in which the development of the sciences reaches the broadest dimensions will be dearest to me, since such a country will raise and enrich all humanity. The true riches of humanity are the arts and sciences. This is what most of all distinguishes people from animals and civilized peoples from barbarians.” (From a letter of January 16, 1712, to Count Golovkin.) Likewise, in another letter Leibniz writes: “I do not belong to the number of those who feel passion for their own fatherland, or for some other nation; my thoughts are directed toward the good of the whole human race; for I consider Heaven to be my fatherland, and all right-minded people to be its fellow citizens, and it is more pleasant for me to do much good among the Russians than little among the Germans or other Europeans, even though I might enjoy among them the greatest honor, wealth, and glory, but could not thereby bring much benefit to others, for I strive for the common good.” (From Leibniz’s letter to Peter the Great, 1712.)

The second characteristic feature of Leibniz is his constant striving for the organization of international relations. In every capital scientific societies, Academies, should be organized; these societies should maintain constant mutual relations, so that the “republic of scholars” would cease to be merely a word and would become a great well-ordered, blessed state, a federation of learned societies for the advancement of the civilization of humanity through the dissemination of the sciences. From a very early age, already in 1668 (Leibniz was born in 1646), Leibniz worked on the establishment of a learned society in Mainz; after his stay in Paris (from 1672 to 1676), where he attended the meetings of the Academy of Sciences founded in Paris by Colbert in 1666, Leibniz developed a plan for the establishment in Berlin of an Academy in all branches of knowledge and the arts; after

of a 25-year struggle; finally, on July 11, 1700, Frederick III resolved to found the Berlin Academy, of which Leibniz was the first president1. In 1696 he began to work for the establishment of an Academy in Russia, which was founded only 22 years after this. In 1704 he drew up the first plan for establishing an Academy in Vienna, but despite the decree of 1713 he did not see the realization of this academy, which was founded according to the same plan only 130 years after his death.

Despite the whole mass of difficulties and failures that Leibniz encountered throughout his life in all his activity, he was a constant optimist; he remarkably faithfully anticipated the future and believed in it, always adhering to his basic principle: “true faith and true hope do not consist in empty words and even thoughts, but in practical thinking (practice denken), that is, one must act as though it were in fact so.” (Leibnitz. Werke, edition of Klopp, I, p. 112, 1864) “I believe,” Leibniz also said, “that we must work for posterity. Often they build houses in which they themselves will not have to live, and plant trees whose fruits they will not have to taste.”

Leibniz’s concerns regarding the cultural development of Russia led him to draw up a very extensive plan for the universal organization of the entire domain of sciences and arts. He saw an enormous advantage in the fact that Russia at that time represented a complete “tabula rasa,” and therefore it was possible to build the new far better, since one could select from other countries what had proved most useful and avoid the mistakes that had been made in other countries. Moreover, Russia’s position is especially convenient, because it is a connecting link between Europe and China and can therefore draw from both sides everything that is best and work it over within its own country. Finally, the enormous expanse from the Baltic Sea to Kamchatka occupied by Russia makes it possible, thanks to a single authority, to set up a whole series of important investigations in the fields of astronomy, magnetism, and meteorology, which will lead to results of the first importance, especially for navigation, and will thus serve the common good of mankind.

For the cultural development of the country three activities are needed:

1) To collect everything that exists in the sciences, crafts, and arts;
2) To disseminate the sciences, crafts, and arts;
3) To develop, that is, to advance further along new paths, the sciences, crafts, and arts.

By the first point Leibniz meant the creation of libraries, collections of the most diverse kinds—mineralogical, botanical, zoological, historical monuments, coins, manuscripts, works of art, and finally of the most varied instruments, machines, models, etc., etc. Further, the establishment of botanical and zoological gardens, mineral caves, etc.

By the second point Leibniz meant, on the one hand, the organization of printing and publishing, and, on the other, the organization of a whole series of schools, both general-educational and vocational, and of universities. It is necessary, Leibniz said, to undertake in Russia the publication of three groups of works: first, to begin publication of a large encyclopedia in eight fields of knowledge; this encyclopedia must be a collective undertaking, and specialists from all countries must be brought in to carry it out; second, it is necessary to begin publishing manuals for separate branches, which would serve as textbooks both in schools and in universities; third, it is necessary to publish a series of short reference books that would contain practical data for each field, both theoretical and practical, for example, for mechanics, for shipbuilders, for agriculture, for travelers, etc.; this should also include the publication of a complete atlas of the entire Russian state.

Schools should be divided into lower, applied, and higher. In the lower schools attention should be paid to physical education, to the study of languages—Latin and German for all, French and Greek for those who intend to enter universities, and for those preparing themselves for theology and missionary activity knowledge of the ancient Hebrew language is also necessary. It is important to provide practical knowledge in schools, to acquaint pupils with the foundations of agriculture and of various practical disciplines. Universities should be located in the principal centers of Russia: in Moscow, as the center of the north; in Kiev, the center of the south; in Astrakhan, which is a very important point connecting Russia with Persia, the Caucasus, and the entire Trans-Caspian region. In the university, first-year students of all faculties should take a whole series of general courses of importance for everyone, namely mathematics, a series of general data on agriculture and, in general, on economics; in the final year students, while still at the university, should perform work of a practical nature. It is necessary to train people who could be sent to all parts of Russia and report geographical, botanical, zoological, and ethnographic data, make observations in astronomy and magnetism, and collect the country’s mineral resources. Even

For persons of clerical rank, Leibniz recommends the acquisition of practical knowledge in the natural sciences, in medicine, and in surgery, since in this way they will have far greater authority among those inhabitants among whom they will find themselves. Leibniz especially insists on the development of a number of special applied higher technical schools.

By the third point of the development and movement of the sciences forward, Leibniz understands the organization of a Scientific Society, under which there would be equipped a large central observatory, on the model of the Paris one. Further, the organization of a network of smaller observatories in Mitau, Riga, Reval, Moscow, Arkhangelsk, Kiev, Voronezh, Kazan, Astrakhan, Tobolsk, Yakutsk, Bukhara, as far as India and China. In these observatories astronomical phenomena and deviations, both horizontal and vertical, of the magnetic needle are to be observed; moreover, all data on mineralogy, botany, zoology, and ethnography are to be collected there, and especially a collection of various dialects. Under the Scientific Society there should be organized laboratories for mechanics, physics, and chemistry, the latter being in close connection, on the one hand, with pharmacy and medicine, and on the other hand, with the smelting of metals from ores, with the production of glass, with work on gunpowder, and in general with artillery. Under this same society there should be established large collections of minerals, plants, and animals, which are to be constantly replenished by those specimens that special travelers will bring from various places of the Russian state. One of the chief tasks of this Scientific Society should be concern for the creation of a number of factories for the production of glass and the use of minerals; the acclimatization of new plants and animals; the improvement of agriculture; the improvement of communication routes, chiefly the improvement of navigation on rivers, for which the straightening and deepening of the channel is required; the arrangement of possible navigation on rapid rivers (Leibniz wrote a special project on this question); the cutting of canals, among other things, between the Volga and the Don, which would connect the Caspian Sea with the Black Sea; the development of shipbuilding; an increase in the number of mills; the utilization of the power of waterfalls, etc., etc.

In order to direct all these three activities, Leibniz advised creating a higher collegium, at the head of which there would stand a president and into which would enter a number of well-prepared persons, most of whom would live in Petersburg, but there would also be correspondents residing in other cities of Russia and even in other countries.

Such are the general features of this great project, which Leibniz

since 1696 and up to 1716 presented many times to Peter the Great himself and to his statesmen. (See especially Leibniz’s memoranda to Peter the Great in December 1708 and in 1711; in 1712 a memorandum to Baron Schleinitz; in 1712 to Peter concerning the study of languages in Russia, concerning the study of the deviation of the magnetic needle, and concerning the connection of Asia with America; and in 1716 concerning the improvement of the arts and sciences in Russia.)

Peter the Great highly valued all these counsels given to him by Leibniz, which he also accompanied with special works on various technical questions, as well as with various machines—for example, the first calculating machine, etc. In 1712 Leibniz received the rank of “Privy Councillor of Justice”: “We, Peter the First, Tsar and Autocrat of All Russia, have deemed it good, for the sake of the most gracious Elector and Prince of Brunswick-Lüneburg, to determine and appoint as our Privy Councillor of Justice Gottfried von Leibniz; for his commendable and by Us recognized excellent merits and arts likewise to determine and appoint him to our Privy Councillors of Justice, so that, since it is known to Us that he can be of much assistance in the advancement of the mathematical and other arts, and in the investigation of histories, and in the increment of the sciences, to Our intended purpose that the sciences and arts in Our state should proceed in greater bloom, he may be employed; and for the aforesaid rank of Our Privy Councillor of Justice We have been pleased to assign to him an annual salary of one thousand efimki, which are to be paid him from Us every year without fail, and for which We shall be pleased to give the proper orders, and his service begins from the date written below; in confirmation whereof, with Our own signature and Our state seal, given at Carlsbad, November 1, 1712.

Peter.

Count Golovkin.”

The Academy of Sciences in Petersburg was founded in 1727 not on so broad a scale as Leibniz had proposed; but now, after 200 years, these general tasks and the general direction given by Leibniz for the introduction of the sciences and arts into Russia, for the development of natural resources, for the improvement of agriculture, and in general for the all-round utilization of all the productive forces of Russia, constitute that extensive program whose fulfillment the Academy of Sciences has undertaken; the memory of Leibniz must be honored, and the chief guiding force must be that universal optimism and faith in a good future with which the entire philosophy was imbued

and all the activity of Leibniz. “Existere nihil aliud esse, quam Harmonium esse.” (Leibnitz, 1675).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1) The Philosophical Works of Leibniz, edition of K. G. Gerhardt, vol. III. 1887.

2) Works of Leibniz, edition of O. Klopp. 1864.

3) W. Guerrier. Leibnitz in seinen Beziehungen zu Russland und Peter dem Grossen. 1873.

4) Pekarsky. History of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. 1870.

5) A. Harnack. Geschichte der Kön. preus. Akademie der Wiss. zu Berlin. 1900.

6) Histoire de l’Académie royale des sciences. Tome I. Depuis 1666 jusqu’à 1686. Paris, 1733.

7) I. Yagodinsky. Leibnitiana. Elementa philosophiae arcanae. De Summa rerum. Kazan, University Printing House. 1913.

8) Kuno Fischer. Leibniz, His Life, Works, and Teaching; translated by Poshchlov. 1905.

1. A. Harnack. Geschichte der Königl. preussisch. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. 1901. ↩