S. V. Altshuler. Labeled Atoms. Series of the Popular-Science Library of the State Publishing House of Technical-Theoretical Literature. Moscow—Leningrad, 1947, print run 100,000 copies, 48 pp., price 90 kopecks.

The brochure is devoted to the important question of the method of radioactive atoms, which, thanks to their radiations, make it possible to follow their motion and dis-

definition. After the discovery of artificially radioactive isotopes in all chemical elements, this method began to be developed into the most precise means of analyzing the tiniest quantities of matter, inaccessible even to spectral analysis.

The most remarkable field of application of the method of “labeled” atoms is biology in the broad sense and medicine. No other method, apart from detecting the electrons and positrons of the decay of “labeled” atoms, can make it possible to trace in full detail the metabolism in plants, animals, and within the human being.

Chapter I sets forth the problem of the atom, Mendeleev’s periodic system, the discovery of radioactivity, and the structure of the nucleus. Here there are a number of gross errors. On p. 5 it is stated that 88 elements are now known and that 4 have been produced artificially, without indicating which these 4 elements are. However, in 1948 not 92, but a total of 96 elements are known (namely, 89 natural and 7 produced, with numbers 43, 61, 85, 93, 94, 95, 96). Since all the new elements naturally arouse interest, the communication of outdated information on this question is inadmissible.

On p. 6 there is the entirely incorrect assertion that “different atoms can be distinguished only by their ability to combine with one another.”

On pp. 8–9 there is an entirely obsolete version of the periodic system, in which not only are all the new elements discovered in 1938–1946 under numbers 43, 61, 85, 87, 93, 94, 95, 96 absent, but the element 43 is also given the erroneous name (masurium). As is well known, German chemists made no discovery of masurium, and their hooligan-chauvinist name (in “memory” of the battles in the Masurian swamps) has no relation whatever to science. In fact, element 43 was discovered as a result of the study of nuclear reactions by Segrè and was named “technetium.” It is regrettable that there is no mention of the most important elements used for the purpose of obtaining atomic energy: neptunium, plutonium, as well as americium and curium.

On p. 12 it is said that one part of the radium rays “is deflected toward the positive pole of an electromagnet…, the other part of the rays is deflected toward the negative pole….” Where has the author seen charged particles being deflected toward the poles of a magnet? Since when have the poles of a magnet become positive and negative?

On p. 14 only two varieties of lead are indicated, whereas in fact, besides uranium lead (atomic weight 206) and thorium lead (208), there is also actinium lead (207), as well as a non-radioactive isotope with weight 204. Since Altshuler repeats his incorrect statement many times, it is evident that the matter is not a misprint but the author’s illiteracy. Also not mentioned is the fourth radioactive family—neptunium—discovered in 1947.

On p. 19 it is stated that tin has isotopes (stable ones are meant) with atomic weights 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, and 124. In fact (see, for example, Seaborg’s tables), tin also has radioactive isotopes with weights 112, 114, 115, 122. Moreover, tin-122 is present in an amount of more than 5%, tin-112 more than one percent, tin-114 about one percent.

Chapter II is devoted to labeled atoms and deals with the idea of indication and with the use of isotopes for this purpose, in particular heavy water. In § 4, concerning the age of the earth, for some reason, alongside the lead method, the helium and potassium methods are not indicated for other radioactive isotopes—products of decay. It is erroneously said that the helium from rocks is supposedly volatilized. This is incorrect; measurement of occluded helium is also a method for determining the age of rocks.

In § 5 on the registration of particles, the idea of the Wilson chamber is set forth, and the Geiger counter is also described. We consider the vulgarization inadmissible

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explanations of the operation of the counter as if it were a spark gap, and, moreover, as if it were receiving the discharge by ear (sic!). It is unclear why, alongside these methods, there is no mention at all of the method of thick-layer photographic plates, developed by the Soviet physicists Mysovskii and Zhdanov and now being introduced with such success in many laboratories; this method apparently opens possibilities for amateur work as well. It is also unclear why, alongside or instead of a drawing of the Wilson chamber and a picture of an airplane’s cloud trail, there is not included at least one real Wilsonian or, no less impressive in visual terms, Zhdanovian photograph of particles or of a nuclear reaction. In a book dealing with the registration of particles, the reader should be given the opportunity directly to feel the power of modern physics, which has reached the atoms of nuclei and elementary particles!

Chapter III is devoted to artificial radioactivity. It is not indicated (pp. 35–36) that unstable isotopes may emit not only electrons, but also positrons, which is very important.

Next the application of the tracer-atom method is set forth for the analysis of the metabolism of substances in plants, for the analysis of the composition of substances, and in medicine. Unfortunately, alongside important applications, rather secondary ones are mentioned as well (the determination of an impurity of iridium in platinum—on p. 45—without any indication of why this is so important).

The last paragraph on biological applications is likewise unsatisfactory. On p. 47 it is stated that almost all iodine in the organism under normal conditions accumulates in the thyroid gland, while in the case of Basedow’s disease it is disturbed, without saying in which direction. In fact, 3–4% normally accumulates in the thyroid gland, and in diseases up to 70% [see, for example, Lawrence’s article in the collection New Biology (Engl.), 1947]. On p. 47 Comrade Altshuler writes about obtaining radiograms of phosphorus in bone in “several minutes.” It would be interesting to know what monstrous concentration was used in this case, and where? Is it really unknown that radiograms require, as a rule, much longer exposures? Here, too, nothing is said about the fact that radiophosphorus accumulates not simply “somewhere” in bone, but specifically in bone marrow and in soft tissues.

The specifically medical applications are described too briefly. Nothing is said, unfortunately, about the highly promising use of radioiodine for deciphering such an important process as photosynthesis in plants. The entire exposition gives no idea at all of the power, universality, and enormous prospects of the method. Nothing is said about the near-term possibilities of obtaining labeled isotopes with the aid of reactors in very considerable quantities. There is not a word about applications to soil science and agrochemistry.

Finally, we note the author’s striking negligence, Comrade Altshuler’s complete silence about Soviet authors. As we have already pointed out, the booklet contains neither the names of Mysovskii and Zhdanov, nor any mention of Skobeltsyn’s work, which considerably expanded the sphere of application of the Wilson chamber specifically for the study of cosmic rays (although cosmic rays are mentioned in the brochure).

Nor can one agree with the suppression of the role of Soviet authors who, as is known, were the first to arrive at a clear formulation of the nuclear model. On p. 18 and thereafter this model is mentioned without any reference to the authors. Is it really not clear to Comrade Altshuler that by doing so he is attempting to facilitate the transfer of priority for the nuclear model to foreign physics? We also consider it a serious error that the brochure contains no, or almost no, references to literature relevant to the subject in question, specifically connected with tracer atoms, and no brief indication, based on known published works, of the Soviet physicists’, chemists’, and biologists’ mastery of this method.

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In summary, one may say that the individual, relatively satisfactory parts of Comrade Altshuler’s brochure are drowned in a sea of inaccuracies, outright errors, crude blunders, a crude misrepresentation of the periodic system table, and the communication of inadmissibly obsolete data. Moreover, Comrade Altshuler gives no understanding of the prospects of the method of labeled atoms and misinforms readers regarding the achievements of Soviet science, which is a serious political error. It is clear that the author himself has no close relation to science and draws his information from second- and third-hand sources.

D. Ivanenko