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ENERGY LEVELS OF ATOMIC NUCLEI
V. N. Kondrat'ev
The atomic nucleus, as a stable or quasi-stable quantum-mechanical system of elementary particles—protons and neutrons—possesses a discrete spectrum of energy levels. Direct indications of the presence of nuclear energy levels are provided by the discrete spectra of alpha rays observed in the alpha decay of naturally radioactive elements, as well as by monochromatic groups of gamma rays that accompany alpha or beta decay of nuclei. Another, no less convincing experimental proof of the existence of nuclear energy levels is furnished by resonance effects, observed in various kinds of nuclear processes; these include the scattering of neutrons, protons, and alpha particles by nuclei, capture processes (the reactions \(n,\gamma\) and \(p,\gamma\)), and nuclear-disintegration reactions that, in the presence of energy resonance, proceed with an increased cross section.
I
The theoretical solution of the problem of nuclear levels, which is the fundamental problem of the dynamics of the atomic nucleus, encounters a number of difficulties caused both by the insufficiency of our knowledge of the forces of interaction between nuclear particles and by the complexity of the quantum problem itself, which is a many-body problem. Attempts by a number of authors to construct a scheme of nuclear energy levels on the assumption of an exponential law of interaction between nuclear particles have not led to any substantial results with respect to establishing quantitative regularities in the arrangement of nuclear levels[^1].
Underlying these attempts there is usually one of two mutually exclusive conceptions of the motion of nuclear particles. The first conception proceeds from the assumption of the independent motion of individual protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The advantage of this—
of an extremely simplified and therefore far from true picture is the possibility of assigning to each nuclear particle definite quantum numbers—the principal and the azimuthal—which make it possible to construct a rational classification of nuclear levels. In accordance with the Pauli principle, this classification leads to the notion of the existence of closed nucleon “shells,” filled successively with protons and neutrons, like the electron shells of atoms: “shells” \(s\), containing at most two protons or two neutrons; “shells” \(p\), with six protons or neutrons; \(d\), with ten, and so on. From this picture it follows, in particular, that nuclei with completely filled nucleon “shells” have increased stability, and that each neutron or proton outside such a “shell” has a comparatively low binding strength. Thus, if the following order is assumed for the relative arrangement of the “shells”: \(1s, 2p, 3d, 2s, 4f,\ldots\), obtained under certain assumptions about the intranuclear field, one should expect special stability of nuclei containing 2, 8, 20, etc. protons or neutrons\(^2\). The excitation energy of such nuclei should also be increased in comparison with nuclei having unclosed nucleon “shells.” Let us add that the increased strength of closed “shells,” in particular of \(s\) “shells” containing two protons and two neutrons, gives some justification for the rather widespread idea of the presence in the nucleus of alpha particles as secondary elementary constituent parts of the nucleus. However, this idea is in obvious contradiction with the initial assumption of the independence of the motion of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, and can be regarded only as a certain correction mitigating the crudeness of this assumption.
The views set forth find partial experimental justification in the periodicity of nuclear masses and in the abundance of stable isotopes of various elements,\(^3\) which is regarded as an indication of the presence of closed nucleon shells. However, the absence of sufficiently accurate mass values for medium and heavy nuclei, as well as the extreme scarcity of our knowledge of nuclear energy levels, make it impossible at the present stage of development of nuclear physics to provide reliable experimental justification for one or another set of ideas underlying the theory of the nucleus. Such justification will become possible only as a result of the accumulation of factual numerical material, a not insignificant part of which must consist of data relating to the energy levels of nuclei.
The second—opposite to the first—picture, developed by Bohr and Kalckar,\(^4\) presupposes a mutual dynamic connection between nuclear particles. According to this picture, each stationary state of an atomic nucleus corresponds to a definite collective type of motion of all its nucleons, similar to that which takes place in the elastic vibrations of a crystal lattice or
liquid sphere. Starting from this analogy, Bohr and Kalckar compute the frequencies of oscillations of the volume \(V=A\delta^3\), having the shape of a sphere (\(A\) is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus and \(\delta\) is the mean diameter of the cell belonging to each nucleon), identifying these frequencies with the levels of the nucleus. The calculations of Bohr and Kalckar, however, are only of an approximate, qualitative character and, in the opinion of the authors themselves, at best can give only a rough idea of the frequency of the arrangement of nuclear levels as a function of the atomic number \(A\). According to these authors, the distances between neighboring levels should decrease with \(A\) as \(A^{-1/3}\) in the case of volume oscillations and as \(A^{-1/2}\) in the case of shape oscillations (surface oscillations).
It follows from experiment that the variation with \(A\) of the mean distances between the lowest nuclear levels is closer to the dependence \(A^{-1/2}\). Hence one may conclude\(^4\) that, if the identification of nuclear levels with the frequencies of quasi-elastic oscillations is not without physical foundations, then the low levels must in any case represent only those vibrational levels which correspond to surface oscillations of the nucleus.
The question of the surface or capillary oscillations of a nucleus, regarded as a uniformly charged liquid drop (with charge \(Ze\)), was considered in more detail by Frenkel\(^5\), who arrived at the following expression for the frequencies of these oscillations:
\[ \nu_n=\frac{1}{2\pi}\sqrt{\frac{U_0 n}{3MR^2}\left[(n-1)(n+2)-10\gamma\frac{n-1}{2n-1}\right]}, \tag{1} \]
where \(U_0=4\pi R^2\sigma\) is the surface energy of the nucleus (\(R\) is the radius and \(\sigma\) the surface tension of the drop), \(M\) is its mass, \(\gamma\) is the ratio of the Coulomb energy
\[ E_0=\frac{3}{5}\frac{(Ze)^2}{R} \]
to the surface energy, and \(n\) is the number characterizing the order of the oscillation\(^*\). In view of the harmonicity of the oscillations, for the vibrational energy, i.e. for the energy of the corresponding nuclear level, one obtains the expression
\[ E_n=s_n h\nu_n, \tag{2} \]
where \(s_n\) is the number of vibrational quanta.
Let us also note that, in contrast to Bohr’s liquid-drop model of the nucleus, Wilson\(^6\) proposed a model consisting of a thin spherical layer. According to Wilson, the formation of a spherical layer instead of a solid sphere may be caused by the saturation of nuclear forces. Thus, if one assumes that each nuclear
\(^*\) As is clear from formula (1), the frequency of the fundamental oscillation corresponds to \(n=2\). Consequently, we have \(n=2,3,4\ldots\)
a particle cannot experience strong attraction from more than four surrounding particles, it is easy to see that electrostatic forces will transform the sphere into a spherical layer. The frequencies of oscillations of such a spherical layer (with its surface unchanged) are expressed by the formula
\[ \nu_n=\frac{Ze}{4\pi R}(MR)^{-\frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{n(n+1)-2}, \tag{3} \]
where \(R\) is the radius of the layer and \(n=2,3,4,\ldots\). Let us note that for \(n>5\) formula (3) gives practically equidistant levels.
There are also known attempts, based on representing the nucleus as a rigid rotator, to identify low nuclear levels with rotational levels of such a rotator. The theoretical consideration of this question led, however, Teller and Wheeler \(^{7}\) to a negative result, especially as regards the possibility of representing precisely the low nuclear levels as rotational levels of a rigid rotator. Later this question was again posed by Guggenheimer \(^{8}\) on the basis of purely energetic considerations, from which, in view of the rapid decrease of nuclear forces with distance, one may conclude that the energy of the nucleus should basically have the form of kinetic energy *).
For the energy of a rigid rotator, quantum mechanics gives the following expression:
\[ E=BK(K+1), \tag{4} \]
where
\[ B=\frac{\hbar^2}{2I}. \]
The moment of inertia \(I\) of a nucleus rotating as a whole and having spherical symmetry is equal to
\[ I=\frac{2}{5}MR^2 \]
(\(R\) is the radius of the nucleus **)). Putting \(M=mA\) (\(m\) is the mass of a nucleon) and representing \(R\) in the form
\[ R=R_0A^{\frac{1}{3}}, \]
from (4) we obtain:
\[ E=2.5B_0A^{-\frac{5}{3}}K(K+1), \tag{5} \]
) The energy of a rigid rotator, as is known, is kinetic energy.
*) The density of all nuclei, as before, is assumed to be the same, which is only approximately correct.
where
\[ B_0=\frac{\hbar^2}{2mR_0^2}{}^{*}). \]
Analyzing the known energy spectra of various nuclei from the point of view of formulas (5) and (6), Guggenheimer comes to the conclusion that rational relations exist between the spacings of the energy levels of a nucleus that are in accord with these formulas. A weak point of Guggenheimer’s analysis is the circumstance that he completely failed to take into account both the selection rules for the quantum number \(K\) and the dependence of the probability of transitions between the various rotational levels of a nucleus on the number \(K\). Consideration of Guggenheimer’s data from this point of view shows that they are in clear contradiction with the conclusions of the theory\(^9\). This makes one doubt the correctness of interpreting the nuclear levels considered by Guggenheimer as rotational. Therefore, despite the seemingly good agreement of his data with the formulas of a rigid rotator, the possibility of purely rotational transitions in the nucleus cannot be regarded as experimentally proved, especially since the experimental data on nuclear levels are in most cases insufficiently accurate and not always sufficiently reliable. For this reason, a test of the rigid-rotator formulas on extensive experimental material is at present out of the question. In addition, the very question of the applicability of simple formulas of the type (4) does not appear to have been sufficiently clarified. In particular, the possibility is not excluded that a large fraction of nuclei do not possess spherical symmetry: the rotational energy of such nuclei would then be expressed not by formula (4), but by a more complicated formula containing two or three moments of inertia. And since the question of the shape of the nucleus cannot at present be decided by theory, this leaves considerable uncertainty and lack of confidence in the correctness of one or another interpretation of nuclear levels. Let us add further that, in the already cited work, Teller and Wheeler\(^7\) allow for the possibility of a considerable displacement of rotational levels (as compared with the levels of a rigid rotator), due to insufficient rigidity of the coupling between nucleons.
Considering the probabilities of rotational transitions in the nucleus, Frenkel\(^5\) comes to the conclusion that the purely rotational spectrum of nuclei
*) Along with rotation of the nucleus as a whole, Guggenheimer also admits the possibility of rotation of one or of a few nuclear particles around the remaining part of the nucleus. In this case, for the rotational energy the following expression is obtained:
\[ E=B_0a^{-1}A^{-\frac{2}{3}}K(K+1), \tag{6} \]
where \(a\) is the number of rotating particles (the radius of rotation is taken to be equal to the nuclear radius).
must be extremely weak, just as the purely vibrational one is. In Frenkel’s opinion, the rotational-vibrational spectrum of the nucleus should have the greatest intensity, similarly to what occurs in the case of optical molecular spectra. The simultaneous change in the vibrational and rotational energy of the nucleus should appear in the fine structure of nuclear levels and spectra—as a result of the splitting of each vibrational level and, correspondingly, of each vibrational line into a series of rotational-vibrational components. In the case of a nucleus considered as a rigid rotator, the distances between the individual components of the fine structure of a line should be expressed by the formula
Fig. 1. Fine structure of the 1.760 MeV gamma line of \(^{214}\mathrm{RaC}'\).
\[ \Delta \nu_n=\frac{B}{h}\,[K(K+1)-(K\pm \Delta K)(K\pm \Delta K+1)], \tag{7} \]
where \(\Delta K\leq n\) (for \(K=0\), \(\Delta K=n\)).
A brilliant confirmation of the theory was the discovery by Latyshev and co-workers\(^{10,9}\) of the fine structure of the gamma lines of \(\mathrm{RaC}'\). The contour of one of the lines analyzed by them is presented in Fig. 1, from which it is seen that here the fine structure appears in the splitting of the line into a series of equally spaced lines. From formula (7) it follows that the distance between two neighboring lines of the fine (rotational) structure should be equal to
\[ \frac{2B\Delta K}{h}=\frac{h}{4\pi^2 I}\,\Delta K . \]
From comparison of this quantity with the observed energy difference of two neighboring fine-structure lines (6.2 KeV) for \(\Delta K=1\) and
\[ I=\frac{2}{5}MR^2=\frac{2}{5}\,214\,mR^2 \]
for the radius of the nucleus RaC′ gives the value
\[ R=(8.88\pm 0.30)\,10^{-13}\ \text{cm}, \]
which is in good agreement with data obtained by other methods[^9], whence it follows that the interpretation of the fine structure of the RaC′ lines as rotational is correct.
An analogous interpretation was also proposed by Wilson[^11] to explain the structure of the energy spectrum of the nuclei \({}^{28}\mathrm{Si}\) and \({}^{28}\mathrm{Al}\). Namely, Wilson showed that 10 of the 36 observed resonance levels of \({}^{28}\mathrm{Si}\) and 4 of the 20 levels of \({}^{28}\mathrm{Al}\) can be interpreted as rotational-vibrational levels of these nuclei.
A number of authors have attempted to establish empirically quantitative regularities in the distribution of the levels of various nuclei on the basis of their comparative study. Thus, as a result of considering the levels of about 50 light nuclei, Chang[^12] came to the conclusion that in each of the four series of nuclei \(4n-1\), \(4n\), \(4n+1\), and \(4n+2\), nuclei with the same neutron excess \(N-Z\) (\(N\) being the number of neutrons and \(Z\) the number of protons in the nucleus) have similar systems of levels. Namely, in each of the four series the levels of nuclei with the same \(N-Z\) can be expressed by the empirical formula
\[ E=as-\frac{b}{s}, \tag{8} \]
where \(s\) is an integer, and \(a\) and \(b\) are constants different for different series and different values of \(N-Z\). Here the first term in formula (8) is interpreted by the author as expressing the energy of the nucleus without taking into account the interaction of its particles, while the second term expresses this interaction1. Even earlier, the similarity of the systems of nuclear levels in the nuclei \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}\), \({}^{31}\mathrm{P}\), and \({}^{35}\mathrm{Cl}\), which have \(N-Z=1\), was noted by Haxel[^13], who apparently was the first to draw attention to the connection between the structure of the nucleus and its energy spectrum. The same similarity was found by May and Vaidyanathan[^14] in the case of the nuclei \({}^{22}\mathrm{Ne}\), \({}^{26}\mathrm{Mg}\), \({}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\), and \({}^{34}\mathrm{S}\), for which \(N-Z=2\). These authors, proceeding (like Chang) from the idea of the presence of alpha particles in the nucleus (the alpha model of the nucleus), connect the similarity of the systems of levels in the nuclei they studied with the fact that, along with a certain number of alpha particles, these nuclei contain two excess neutrons (the “radical” \(2n\)). Correspondingly, such a “radical,” determining the similarity of the systems of nuclear levels in the homologous series \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}\), \({}^{31}\mathrm{P}\), \({}^{35}\mathrm{Cl}\), is the group \(2n+p\). It is easy, however, to see that if the indicated regularity is not a mere accident, then in any case it extends to only a very limited number of “homologues.” In particular, it is known that the systems of levels of the nuclei \({}^{15}\mathrm{N}\) and \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}\), which also contain two “excess” neutrons and one pro-
therefore \((2n+p)\), have nothing in common with the system of levels of \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}\), \({}^{31}\mathrm{P}\), and \({}^{35}\mathrm{Cl}\).
As is evident from all that has been set forth above, the theory of the nucleus at the present stage of its development proves powerless in solving the quantitative problem of nuclear energy levels. All the greater importance is therefore acquired by experimental possibilities for establishing systems of levels of various nuclei, since one may hope that knowledge of the various quantum states of the nucleus, in the sense of their properties and of the mutual arrangement of the corresponding levels, for the maximum possible number of nuclei will indicate paths for constructing an exact theory of the nucleus, and will make it possible correctly to formulate the guiding hypothesis that must be laid at the foundation of this theory.
In the following section we shall dwell on experimental methods for studying nuclear levels, restricting, however, the problem to questions concerning the energy spectrum of nuclei (the system of levels), and not touching at all upon the no less important question of the properties of the levels and of the corresponding nuclear states (the width of the levels and the associated probability of quantum transitions, nuclear spin, electric moment, etc.).
II
The discrete character of the spectrum of alpha particles* emitted in the alpha decay of heavy nuclei gives, in principle, the possibility of establishing the energy levels of these nuclei. Indeed, the presence of several isoenergetic groups of alpha particles in the alpha spectrum of most radioactive nuclei indicates that either these nuclei decay while being at different energy levels, or else the final nuclei arising as a result of the decay have different degrees of excitation.
Since the final nucleus (the recoil nucleus) after emission of an alpha particle by the initial nucleus has a certain kinetic energy equal, according to the conservation laws, to \(\frac{4}{A}E_{aik}\) (\(A\) is the atomic weight of the final nucleus and \(E_{aik}\) is the energy of the alpha particle), the change of energy in the given act of decay must be equal to
\[ \Delta W_{ik}=\frac{A+4}{A}E_{aik}. \]
At the same time, the quantity \(\Delta W\) is equal to the difference of the energies of the initial \((W_i^0)\) and final \((W_k)\) nuclei, whence it follows that
\[ W_i^0-W_k=\frac{A+4}{A}E_{aik}. \tag{9} \]
* The study of the structure of alpha spectra is based on the use of magnetic analysis. Groups of alpha particles that differ appreciably in their energy are also easily distinguishable by their range.
As is seen from this equality, only for different \(i\) and one and the same value of \(k\), or, conversely, for one \(i\) and different \(k\), does it make it possible to find the differences of the levels of the initial \((W_i^0 - W_{i'}^0)\) or, respectively, final nucleus \((W_k - W_{k'})\) as differences of the quantities
\[ \frac{A+4}{A} E_{\alpha ik}. \]
Consequently, on the basis of an analysis of the alpha spectrum alone, the system of levels of the given nucleus cannot be established unambiguously.
Therefore, in order to solve this problem, along with the data on the alpha spectrum one usually uses data relating to the spectrum of gamma rays, which is also discrete, being connected with quantum transitions of the nucleus. The magnitude of the gamma quantum \((\gamma)^*)\) directly gives the difference of the corresponding levels of the initial or final nucleus, i.e.
\[ \gamma_{ii'} = W_i^0 - W_{i'}^0 \]
or
\[ \gamma_{kk'} = W_k - W_{k'}. \tag{10} \]
The equality of the energy differences \((\Delta W)\), calculated from the alpha spectrum, and the magnitudes of the gamma quanta \((\gamma)\) has been established in the case of a large number of alpha-radioactive nuclei. As an example we give the following data, relating to RaAc (Kev):
\[ \begin{array}{c|cccccccc} \Delta W \ldots & 33{,}6 & 41 & 60 & 100 & 191 & 275 & 295 & 309 \\ \gamma \ldots & 31{,}5 & 43{,}7 & 61{,}4 & 101 & 195 & 282 & 300 & \end{array} \]
However, a simple comparison of the data obtained from the analysis of the alpha spectrum with the data from the analysis of the gamma spectrum still does not solve the problem of the energy levels of the given nucleus, since for this it is necessary to ascertain to which nucleus—initial or final—the gamma spectrum belongs. The most reliable method here is the method of coincidences (see below), consisting in the simultaneous observation of acts of emission of alpha and gamma rays. Since the mean lifetime of the excited nucleus is measured by a quantity of the order of \(10^{-13}\) sec., the emission of gamma rays by the final nucleus occurs practically simultaneously with the process of alpha decay. In this case we shall have a “true” \(\alpha\gamma\)-coincidence. In the case, however, when gamma rays are emitted by the initial nucleus, the \(\alpha\gamma\)-coincidence can be only accidental, which is easily established by carrying out a sufficiently
*) Measurement of the magnitude of gamma quanta is carried out by magneto-spectrographic measurement of the energy of electrons ejected by gamma rays from thin metallic plates (Compton and photoelectric effects), or by measuring the energy of electrons and positrons produced as a result of internal conversion of gamma rays[^15]. A cruder method is based on measuring the absorption coefficient of gamma rays in lead, which is a single-valued function of the wavelength.
a large number of observations. In this way one can establish the assignment of the observed gamma spectrum to one or another nucleus and, by comparing it with the alpha spectrum, find the levels of this nucleus.
As an example, in Fig. 2 we give the system of levels of the nucleus ThC′, constructed on the basis of an analysis of its alpha and gamma spectra[^15]. Similar level schemes have also been established for some other alpha-active nuclei.
For establishing the levels of the decay products of beta-active nuclei, their beta spectra can be used instead of alpha spectra. The latter, as is known, are continuous, but it is not difficult to see that the change in energy in beta decay, i.e. the difference between the levels of the initial and final nuclei, in this case must be equal to the maximum energy of the corresponding group of beta rays (in β⁻ decay), found from the boundary of the beta spectrum on the side of high energies.
Representing the process of β⁻ decay by the scheme
\[ A^Z \longrightarrow A^{Z+1} + \beta^- + \nu + T_{ik} \]
(\(\beta^-\) is an electron, \(\nu\) is a neutrino, and \(T_{ik}\) is their kinetic energy, obviously equal to the maximum energy of the electron) and assuming the energies of the initial and final nuclei to be respectively
\[ W_i^0 = W_0^0 + E_i^0 \quad \text{and} \quad W_k = W_0 + E_k, \]
(\(W_0^0\) and \(W_0\) are the energies of the nuclei in their normal state), from the balance of the corresponding atomic masses (taking into account the fact that the rest mass of the neutrino is zero) we shall have[^16]
\[ \Delta W_{ik}=W_i^0-W_k=(W_0^0-W_0)+(E_i^0-E_k)=T_{ik}, \tag{11} \]
where
\[ W_0^0-W_0=c^2(m_Z-m_{Z+1}). \]
Fig. 2. Scheme of the energy levels of \(^{212}\mathrm{ThC}'\).
The problem of establishing the system of energy levels of nuclei on the basis of an analysis of beta and gamma spectra is facilitated by the fact that the initial nucleus is practically always in the normal state (\(E_i^0=0\)). In this case, according to equality (11), the differences of the maximum energies of beta particles \((T_{0k}-T_{0k'})\) directly give the differences of the levels of the final nucleus: \(E_{k'}-E_k\).
Let us consider several typical examples[^17]. In Fig. 3 the beta decay of the nucleus \(^{198}\mathrm{Au}\) is presented. In this case a monoenergetic group of beta rays with maximum energy \(T_{01}=0.92\ \mathrm{MeV}\) and monochromatic gamma rays with energy \(\gamma_{10}=0.41\ \mathrm{MeV}\) are observed. The meas—
... of $\beta\gamma$ coincidences make it possible to establish that the final level of beta radiation is the initial one for gamma radiation.
The arrangement of the apparatus for measuring coincidences is shown in Fig. 4. When measuring $\beta\gamma$ coincidences, thin aluminum plates of various thicknesses are placed between the source and one of the Geiger–Müller counters, and the number of coincidences is measured as a function of the thickness of the aluminum, i.e., of the energy of the beta rays. At the same time, from the independence of the number of $\beta\gamma$ coincidences from the energy of the beta particles, one is convinced that in the given beta spectrum there is only one group of beta particles. If two or several groups of beta particles are present, the number of coincidences must depend on their energy, especially in those cases when one of these groups is associated with a transition to the normal level of the final nucleus. In the example given of the beta decay of $^{198}\mathrm{Au}$, the number of $\beta\gamma$ coincidences proves to be independent of the energy of the beta particles, from which it follows: 1) the presence of only one group of beta particles and 2) the fact of practically simultaneous emission of beta
Fig. 3. Beta decay of $^{198}\mathrm{Au}$.
Fig. 4. Arrangement of the apparatus for measuring $\beta\gamma$- and $\gamma\gamma$-coincidences.
and gamma rays, i.e., the beta decay of $^{198}\mathrm{Au}$ with transition to an excited level of the $^{198}\mathrm{Hg}$ nucleus, which is the initial level for gamma radiation.
When measuring $\gamma\gamma$ coincidences, a thick layer of aluminum, sufficient to absorb all beta particles, is placed between the source and both counters. In this case, a coincidence is observed only when there are two or more wavelengths in the gamma spectrum. In the case of $^{198}\mathrm{Au}$, $\gamma\gamma$ coincidences are not observed, from which the monochromatic character of the gamma radiation follows.
When two or several gamma quanta are present in the gamma spectrum, the question often arises whether the different quanta are emitted successively (as a cascade) or in parallel. The latter occurs when the initial level of the gamma radiation is common to different gamma transitions. One of the methods for solving this question consists in the parallel measurement of the absorption of gamma rays by lead using one counter and using two counters connected according to the coincidence scheme (with lead placed between the source and each of the counters...
...counters). In this case, for a cascade the absorption curves obtained with one and with two counters will obviously have the same form. In the opposite case (parallel gamma rays), because of the difference in absorption coefficients for different wavelengths of the gamma rays, the absorption curves will have a different form.
Fig. 5. Beta decay of \(^{42}\mathrm{K}\).
In Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8 more complicated cases of beta decay are presented. In the case of the decay of \(^{42}\mathrm{K}\), the number of \(\beta\gamma\)-coincidences turns out to depend on the energy of the beta particles, in accordance with the presence of two groups of these particles with maximum energies \(T_{01}=2.07\ \mathrm{MeV}\) and \(T_{00}=3.58\ \mathrm{MeV}\). From the difference of these numbers, the excitation energy of the \(^{42}\mathrm{Ca}\) nucleus is obtained as \(E_1=T_{00}-T_{01}=1.51\ \mathrm{MeV}\)—a value coinciding with the energy of the gamma quantum \((\gamma_{10})\); hence the scheme of Fig. 5. The independence of the \(\beta\gamma\)-coincidences from the energy (one group of beta particles), the presence of \(\gamma\gamma\)-coincidences, and the cascade character of the gamma radiation in the case of the beta decay of \(^{24}\mathrm{Na}\), together with measurements of the energies of the beta particles and gamma quanta, lead to the scheme of Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Beta decay of \(^{24}\mathrm{Na}\).
Fig. 7. Beta decay of \(^{116}\mathrm{In}\).
In an analogous manner, the more complicated schemes of Figs. 7 and 8 have been obtained, as well as schemes relating to a number of other beta-active nuclei.
Here we shall dwell only on the scheme of beta decay of the naturally radioactive \(^{234}_{90}\mathrm{UX}_1\), \(^{234}_{91}\mathrm{UX}_2\), and \(^{234}_{91}\mathrm{UZ}\) (Fig. 9). In the discovered...
Ganom2 UZ, which proved to be an isomer of \(UX_2\) (the same \(N\) and \(Z\)), we have the first case of nuclear isomerism, predicted by Soddy3 several years before this discovery. \(UZ\) and \(UX_2\) have different half-lives (6.7 hours and 1.14 min.) and different beta spectra. This compels one to regard \(UZ\) as metastable \(UX_2\). According to Weizsäcker’s hypothesis4, whenever the first excited
Fig. 8. Beta decay of \(^{56}\mathrm{Mn}\).
Fig. 9. Beta decay of \(^{234}_{90}UX_1\), \(^{234}_{91}UX_2\), and \(^{234}_{91}UZ\).
state of the nucleus has a spin differing considerably from the spin of the normal state, then, by virtue of the selection rules, the transition from this state to the normal one is “forbidden,” and it proves to be metastable*).
Besides \(UX_2—UZ\), a large number of nuclear isomers are now known (see below).
In the case of positron-active nuclei (\(\beta^+\)-activity), measurements of the positron spectrum may be used to establish the energy levels of the products of their decay (usually in parallel with data on the gamma radiation accompanying the decay process). This process is represented by the scheme
\[ A^Z \longrightarrow A^{Z-1} + \beta^+ + \nu + T_{0k}, \]
where \(\beta^+\) is the positron and \(T_{0k}\) is the kinetic energy of the positron and the neutrino (equal to the maximum energy of the positron). In view of the fact that, in positron decay, simultaneously with the positron the atom also loses
one electron, the change in energy in this case is expressed by the following equality\(^ {16}\):
\[ \Delta W_{ik}=W_i^0-W_k=(W_0^0-W_0)+E_i-E_k=T_{ik}+2m_ec^2{}^*), \tag{12} \]
where \(m_e\) is the mass of the electron and
\[ W_0^0-W_0=c^2(m_Z-m_{Z-1}). \]
In Fig. 10 we give the decay scheme of β\(^+\)-active \(^{52}\mathrm{Mn}\) and the levels of the resulting \(^{52}\mathrm{Cr}\)\(^ {22}\). Let us note that, in contrast to this case, as a rule \(E_i=0\) almost always, as in β\(^-\)-decay.
Fig. 10. Positron decay of \(^{52}\mathrm{Mn}\) and levels of \(^{52}\mathrm{Cr}\).
Excited states of nuclei also arise in transformations connected with \(K\)-capture, which very often takes place in parallel with positron decay, although this, of course, is not obligatory, as is the case, for example, with \(^{52}\mathrm{Mn}\). From the scheme of \(K\)-capture
\[ A^Z+e_k \to A^{Z-1}+\nu+T \]
(\(T\) is the kinetic energy of the neutrino), for the change in energy of the system it follows\(^ {16}\):
\[ \Delta W_{ik}=W_i^0-W_k=(W_0^0-W_0)+E_i-E_k=T_{ik}. \tag{13} \]
In view of the impossibility of measuring the energy of the neutrino, the quantity \(\Delta W_{ik}\) in this case cannot be obtained from experiment, and the levels of the final nucleus \(E_k\) (\(E_i=0\), see above) can be established only on the basis of studying the gamma spectrum. The simplest examples are given in Figs. 11 and 12. The first of them also represents an example of a nucleus (\(^{64}\mathrm{Cu}\)) capable of both β\(^+\)- and β\(^-\)-decay. In this case, along with positron decay leading to the normal level of the final nucleus (\(^{64}\mathrm{Ni}\)), two processes of \(K\)-capture also occur, as a result of which the normal and an excited \(^{64}\mathrm{Ni}\) nucleus are obtained\(^ {23}\). Fig. 12 relates to the decay of \(^{107}\mathrm{Cd}\)\(^ {24}\). From the data given here it is seen that this nucleus, in 99.27 cases out of a hundred, is transformed by \(K\)-capture into the metastable isomer \(^{107}\mathrm{Ag}^*\); by the same route, in 0.42 cases out of a hundred, into an excited \(^{107}\mathrm{Ag}\) nucleus; and in 0.31 cases it undergoes positron decay.
The transition of the metastable nucleus \(^{107}\mathrm{Ag}^*\), which has a half-life of 44 sec., to the normal state is effected by
\[ {}^*)\quad 2m_ec^2=1.01\ \mathrm{MeV}. \]
emission of a gamma quantum, undergoing internal conversion^25, leading to the ejection of an electron from the \(K\)- or \(L\)-shell (with smaller probability from the \(M\)- and \(N\)-shells) of the atom emitting the gamma quantum. The energy of the metastable level \((E)\), therefore, can be calculated from the energy of the conversion electron \(T_e\) and the energy of its binding to the nucleus \(eI\), found from the boundary of the corresponding X-ray series, i.e.
\[ E = T_e + eI. \tag{14} \]
In an analogous way the energy values of metastable levels of a large number of nuclei were calculated. Thus, for example, in the case
Fig. 11. Decay of \(^{64}\mathrm{Cu}\).
Fig. 12. Decay of \(^{107}\mathrm{Cd}\).
of the gamma-active isomer of stable \(^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\), produced in the beta decay of \(^{83}\mathrm{Br}\) and having a half-life of 113 min., the energy of the conversion electrons proves to be \(T_e = 35\ \mathrm{Kev}\). Adding to this number the binding energy of a \(K\)-electron in the krypton atom, equal to 14 Kev, on the basis of (14) we obtain \(E = 0.049\ \mathrm{MeV}\)^26. We add that from the probability of the transition \(^{83}\mathrm{Kr}^{*} \to {}^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\), for the nuclear spin of the metastable krypton nucleus \((^{83}\mathrm{Kr}^{*})\) one obtains \(\frac{1}{2}\) (as compared with \(\frac{9}{2}\) for normal \(^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\)). The large difference in spins (4) is in complete agreement with Weizsäcker’s hypothesis (see above).
As is clear from all that has been said above, gamma spectra play an exceptionally important role in establishing the system of nuclear-
of levels characteristic of radioactive nuclei or of nuclei arising as a result of beta decay ($\beta^-$ and $\beta^+$) or $K$-capture processes. Excited nuclei are also often formed in other nuclear reactions occurring in the interaction of neutrons, protons, deuterons, and alpha particles with various nuclei. The study of the spectrum of gamma rays accompanying a given reaction also makes it possible to find the energy levels of the final nucleus arising as a result of this reaction. In this respect, light nuclei have been studied especially thoroughly.^27
Thus, for example, as a result of the reaction
\[ {}^{10}\mathrm{B}(n\alpha){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}, \]
along with normal ${}^{7}\mathrm{Li}$ nuclei, in 93 cases out of one hundred^28 excited nuclei are formed, emitting monochromatic gamma rays^29 with energy $\gamma_{10}=0.480\ \mathrm{MeV}$, whence it follows that $E_1=0.480\ \mathrm{MeV}$. The same levels of ${}^{7}\mathrm{Li}$ also arise as a result of the reactions
\[ {}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(d\alpha){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}^{27} \quad \text{and} \quad {}^{6}\mathrm{Li}(dp){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}^{30}, \]
as follows, in particular, from measurements of the corresponding gamma spectra. In exactly the same way, on the basis of an analysis of gamma radiation it was possible to establish the fact of formation in a number of reactions (along with normal ones) of excited ${}^{12}\mathrm{C}$ nuclei and to find a series of levels of this nucleus. These reactions include:
\[ {}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{12}\mathrm{C}^{31,27},\quad {}^{11}\mathrm{B}(dn){}^{12}\mathrm{C}^{32,33,27},\quad {}^{11}\mathrm{B}(p\gamma){}^{12}\mathrm{C}^{34},\quad {}^{14}\mathrm{N}(d\alpha){}^{12}\mathrm{C}^{35,27} \quad \text{and} \]
\[ {}^{15}\mathrm{N}(p\alpha){}^{12}\mathrm{C}^{36}. \]
Applying the method of $\gamma\gamma$ coincidences, it was possible to establish the order of emission of the corresponding lines by the excited nucleus and, in this way, to find its levels ($E_k$).
Among other reactions, let us indicate the reaction
\[ {}^{10}\mathrm{B}(\alpha p){}^{13}\mathrm{C}, \]
as a result of which excited ${}^{13}\mathrm{C}$ nuclei arise (along with normal ones). A number of levels of this nucleus could be established on the basis of an analysis of the gamma spectrum.^37,38 Some of these levels are also obtained from analysis of the gamma spectrum of the reaction
\[ {}^{12}\mathrm{C}(dp){}^{13}\mathrm{C}^{39}. \]
As is known, excited nuclei also arise as a result of inelastic scattering of neutrons, protons, and alpha particles. The levels of the scattering nucleus in this case can be established both from the spectrum of gamma rays and from the spectrum of the scattered particles. Thus, in the inelastic scattering of protons^40 and alpha particles^41 by lithium
monochromatic gamma radiation is detected, corresponding to the level \(E = 0.480\) MeV. Further, in the spectrum of scattering of monoenergetic protons (with energy 4 MeV) by neon there is observed a group of protons with an energy \(\sim 1.4\) MeV less than the initial energy, associated with excitation of the level of \({}^{20}\mathrm{Ne}\), \(E_1 = 1.5\) MeV, as a result of inelastic scattering\({}^{42}\). In exactly the same way, when neutrons are scattered by magnesium, a group of neutrons arises with an energy \(\sim 1.3\) MeV less than the initial energy, corresponding to excitation of the \({}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\) nucleus\({}^{43}\). In Fig. 13 the initial spectrum (dashed line) and the spectrum of scattered neutrons (solid curve) are shown. In this case the neutron spectrum was measured from the range of recoil protons in a Wilson chamber filled with ethane.
Fig. 13. Inelastic scattering of neutrons in \({}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\). The dashed line is the initial neutron spectrum; the solid curve is the spectrum of scattered neutrons.
As was already indicated above, nuclei arising as the result of one or another reaction often prove to be in an excited state. Therefore, in reactions accompanied by the emission of a light particle, i.e., in reactions of the type \(nx\), \(dn\), \(dp\), \(d\alpha\), \(\alpha n\), \(\alpha p,\ldots\), under conditions of sufficiently large energy of the bombarding particles or a sufficiently large positive energy effect of the reaction, discrete groups of particles should be observed in the energy spectrum of the emitted particles, similar to what occurs in inelastic scattering. In this case the group of particles with maximum energy, obviously, corresponds to the reaction in which the final nucleus is in the normal state, while groups with lower energy correspond to reactions whose products are nuclei situated at one or another excitation level \((E_k)\). Measurements of the energy of these groups make it possible to determine the values \(E_k\), on which is based one of the widely used methods for establishing the energy levels of nuclei (as well as the energy effects of the corresponding reactions and, consequently, the masses of nuclei).
In calculating the excitation energy \(E_k\) from the energy spectrum of light particles or inelastically scattered particles arising as a result of the reaction, it is necessary to take into account the share of kinetic energy received by the recoil nucleus, which is especially relevant for light nuclei. Denoting the initial kinetic energy and the mass of the bombarding and emitted particles respectively by \(T^0\), \(m^0\) and \(T_k\), \(m\), and the energy effect of the reaction by \(Q\)
(in the case of exoergic reactions \(Q>0\)) and the mass of the recoil nucleus by \(M\), from the conservation laws we have:
\[ E_k=Q+\left(1-\frac{m^0}{M}\right)T^0-\left(1+\frac{m}{M}\right)T_k +2\frac{\sqrt{m^0m}}{M}\sqrt{T^0T_k}\cos\vartheta, \tag{15} \]
where \(\vartheta\) is the angle between the direction of emission of the light particle and the direction of the bombarding particle. If the maximum energy of the emitted particles is measured, then in equality (15) \(\cos\vartheta=1\), and the correction taking into account the energy of the recoil nucleus will have the form
\[ -\left(\sqrt{\frac{m^0}{M}T^0}-\sqrt{\frac{m}{M}T_k}\right)^2 . \]
In the case of sufficiently heavy nuclei this correction may be neglected, and we shall have
\[ E_k=Q+T^0-T_k. \tag{16} \]
In this case the energy of the excited levels of the nucleus is obtained directly as the difference of the quantities \(T_0\) and \(T_k\), where \(T_0\) is the energy corresponding to the group of the fastest particles. Indeed, since for \(k=0\), \(E_k=E_0=0\), we have \(T_0=Q+T^0\), i.e.
\[ E_k=T_0-T_k. \tag{17} \]
Equalities (15), (16), and (17), evidently, also remain valid in the case of inelastic scattering, when \(m^0=m\) and \(Q=0\). As an example let us cite the case of the reaction
\[ {}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\,(dp)\,{}^{25}\mathrm{Mg}. \]
When magnesium is irradiated with deuterons of energy \(3.9\) MeV, four groups of protons are observed. Assuming that all these groups are associated with the deuteron reaction with the most abundant of the three stable magnesium isotopes—\({}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\)—the following values are obtained for the energy levels of the \({}^{25}\mathrm{Mg}\) nucleus: \(E_1=0.70\), \(E_2=1.70\), and \(E_3=2.25\) MeV\(^{44}\).
Excited states of the nucleus arise not only when nuclei are irradiated with neutrons, protons, or alpha particles, but also when they are irradiated with fast electrons and X-rays. Up to the present time this method has apparently been applied only in the case of nuclei possessing metastable levels, which determine their long-term activity. Measuring the activity (by counting conversion electrons) at various energies of the bombarding electrons (eV) or various accelerating potentials (\(V\)) in an X-ray tube (X-rays), one constructs the activity curve \(A\) as a function of the quantity \(V\). A typical curve of this kind, relating to the case—
partly \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}^{45}\) is shown in Fig. 14. From the values of the X-ray energy in eV corresponding to the bends of the curve \(A=A(V)\), which indicate an increased “activation” of rhodium when the photon energies exceed certain definite threshold values, one obtains those energy levels of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}\) with whose excitation the “activation” of this nucleus is associated. The scheme of excitation of rhodium activity corresponding to the curve of Fig. 14 is presented in Fig. 15.
Fig. 14. Excitation of the activity of metastable \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}\) upon irradiation of rhodium with X-rays of various energies.
Fig. 15. Scheme of excitation of the 45-minute activity of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}\) by X-rays.
The numbers on the left (1.26...3.05 MeV), corresponding to the positions of the bends of the curve in Fig. 14, represent the energy levels of the \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}\) nucleus, primarily excited by X-rays. The corresponding quantum transitions in the nucleus are shown by arrows directed from bottom to top. With the emission of gamma quanta, the excited nuclei pass practically instantaneously into the metastable state of active \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}^*\) (arrows directed from top to bottom). The transition from this state, which has a half-life of \(45\pm1\) min, occurs by emission of a gamma quantum undergoing internal conversion. Measurement of the energy of the conversion electrons, with allowance for the binding energy of the \(K\)-electrons of rhodium, gives for the energy of the metastable level the value 0.040 MeV. It should be especially emphasized that this level is excited by X-rays not directly, but through higher levels, as is evident from the existence of an excitation threshold determined by the energy of the lowest of these levels—1.26 MeV (see Fig. 14). The reason for this undoubtedly lies in the small probability of the transition \(E_0 \to E_0^*\) (metastable level). An analogous picture is apparently observed in all other known cases of excitation of metastable nuclear levels by X-rays or fast electrons. It is further interesting to note that excitation of the metastable state of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}\) was also observed upon irradiation of rhodium with three-MeV neutrons \(^{46}\). Here, apparently, inelastic scattering of neutrons may be involved. It is also known that
excitation of metastable \(^{115}\mathrm{In}\) under irradiation of indium with fast neutrons (2.5 MeV)\(^{47}\), protons (\(\sim 5.8\) MeV)\(^{48}\), and alpha particles (\(\sim 16\) MeV)\(^{49}\), apparently also connected with inelastic scattering of these particles. The threshold for excitation of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) by X-rays and electrons corresponds to an energy of 1.2 MeV. The excitation of metastable states of nuclei in inelastic scattering of neutrons, protons, or alpha particles is apparently also connected with the preliminary excitation of higher nuclear levels, as is indicated, in particular, by the fact that the excitation threshold of metastable gold \(^{197}\mathrm{Au}\) proves to be the same (1.22 MeV) for X-rays and for neutrons\(^{50}\). From this fact it also follows that the level of \(^{197}\mathrm{Au}\) at 1.22 MeV can be excited both by X-rays and by neutrons (see below).
Fig. 16. Yield of alpha particles in the reaction \({}^{6}\mathrm{Li}(n\alpha){}^{3}\mathrm{T}\).
All the methods considered up to now for determining nuclear levels pertain mainly to the levels of the final nucleus (nuclear reactions, beta decay, \(K\)-capture) or of the irradiated nucleus (inelastic scattering, X-rays, and fast electrons). In what follows we shall consider methods by which the levels of the intermediate nucleus are determined, which represents an intermediate or transition state of the reacting nuclear system. The levels of the intermediate nucleus, in particular, are detected through the appearance of resonant maxima on the yield curves of products of various reactions—in accordance with the theory of nuclear reactions\(^{51}\). Let us give several examples, first considering neutron reactions. In these reactions the intermediate nucleus is the nucleus of a heavier isotope \((A+1)\) of the original nucleus \((A)\).
In Fig. 16 we give the yield curve of alpha particles arising as a result of the reaction
\[ {}^{6}\mathrm{Li}(n\alpha){}^{3}\mathrm{T}, \]
as a function of the neutron energy\(^{52}\). The intermediate nucleus here is the \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) nucleus. Therefore the resonant maximum observed at a neutron energy of 0.27 MeV (Fig. 16) must correspond to one of the levels of \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}\). Denoting the neutron energy corresponding to the resonant maximum of the yield curve by \(T_r\) (0.27 MeV), the energy released in the formation of the intermediate nucleus (\(^{7}\mathrm{Li}\)) from the initial nucleus (\(^{6}\mathrm{Li}\)) and the neutron by \(Q'\), the masses of the neutron and of both nuclei by \(m_n\), \(m\) (initial nucleus), and \(m'\) (intermediate nucleus), the velocity of the center of mass of the system by \(v'\), and the sought excitation energy of the \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) nucleus by \(E\), from the law of conservation of energy we find:
\[ Q' + T_r = E + \frac{m'v'^2}{2} \]
or, in view of
\[ \frac{m'v'^2}{2}=\frac{m_n}{m'}T_r, \]
\[ E=Q' + \frac{m}{m'}T_r . \tag{18} \]
Calculating the quantity \(Q'\) from the known masses of the neutron and the atoms \(^{6}\mathrm{Li}\) and \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) on the basis of the equality
\[ Q'=c^2(m_n+m-m'), \]
we find \(Q'=7.15\) MeV and then, on the basis of (18),
\[ E=7.15+\frac{6}{7}\,0.27=7.38\ \text{MeV}. \]
In Fig. 17 the yield curve of the reaction (reaction cross section)
\(^{14}\mathrm{N}(np)^{14}\mathrm{C}^{53}\) is shown.
From the corresponding maxima of this curve, the three values of the quantity \(T_r=0.55,\ 0.70\), and \(1.45\) MeV and the energy effect \(Q'\), on the basis of (18), give the following three levels of the \(^{15}\mathrm{N}\) nucleus: \(E=11.26,\ 11.40\), and \(12.10\) MeV.
Fig. 17. Cross section of the reaction \(^{14}\mathrm{N}(np)^{14}\mathrm{C}\).
Fig. 18. Total cross section of \(^{12}\mathrm{C}\).
As an example of a neutron-capture reaction \((n\gamma)\), one may cite the reaction
\[ ^{238}\mathrm{U}(n\gamma)^{239}\mathrm{U}, \]
which exhibits a sharp resonance at \(T_r=5\) eV. Hence it follows that the corresponding level of the \(^{239}\mathrm{U}\) nucleus must have energy \(E\simeq Q'\) (18).
Finally, among neutron reactions we may formally include scattering processes, which in their theoretical treatment essentially do not differ from other neutron reactions\({}^{51}\) and which,
as is known, also exhibit the resonance effect (anomalous or resonance scattering). An example of anomalous neutron scattering is their scattering by carbon. The “anomaly” here is detected by the appearance of several resonance maxima on the total cross-section curve. This curve in the region of fast neutrons has two maxima (Fig. 18)\(^{54}\), from whose positions the following energy levels of the nucleus \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) are obtained: \(E = 8.25\) and \(8.90\ \mathrm{MeV}\).
Let us next consider reactions of protons and deuterons. In these reactions the intermediate nuclei are the nuclei \((A+1)^{Z+1}\) and \((A+2)^{Z+1}\), if \(A^Z\) is the bombarded nucleus. Figures 19 and 20 show the neutron-yield curves in the reaction
\[ {}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(pn){}^{9}\mathrm{B}^{55}, \]
from the position of whose resonance maximum a level of the nucleus \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) is obtained: \(E = 8.76\ \mathrm{MeV}\), and in the reaction
\[ {}^{12}\mathrm{C}(dn){}^{13}\mathrm{N}^{56}, \]
from five resonance maxima
Fig. 19. Neutron yield in the reaction \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(pn){}^{9}\mathrm{B}\).
Fig. 20. Neutron yield in the reaction \({}^{12}\mathrm{C}(dn){}^{13}\mathrm{N}\).
of which the following levels of the nucleus \({}^{14}\mathrm{N}\) are obtained: \(E = 11.05,\ 11.26,\ 11.37,\ 11.6\) and \(12.3\ \mathrm{MeV}\). The same resonance maxima and, consequently, the same levels are obtained from the yield curve of another product of the reaction, positron-active \({}^{13}\mathrm{N}\).
Figure 21 gives the gamma-ray yield curve corresponding to the radiation of the \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) nucleus with energy \(0.48\ \mathrm{MeV}\), when lithium is irradiated with fast protons\(^{57}\). The presence of a resonance maximum indicates anomalous inelastic scattering of protons. From the position of the maximum a level of the \({}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) nucleus is obtained: \(E = 18.13\ \mathrm{MeV}\). Figure 22 gives the yield curve of radioactive \({}^{8}\mathrm{Li}\), produced as a result of the reaction
\[ {}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dp){}^{8}\mathrm{Li}^{58}. \]
From the resonance maxima observed at deuteron energies of 0.65, 1.02, and 1.35 MeV, the following levels of the nucleus \(^{9}\mathrm{Be}\) are obtained: \(E = 17.17,\ 17.45,\) and \(17.71\) MeV.
As an example of a \(p\alpha\) reaction, Fig. 23 gives the yield curve of alpha particles in the reaction
\[ ^{11}\mathrm{B}(p\alpha)^{8}\mathrm{Be}^{59}. \]
From the sharp resonance maximum of this curve, observed at a proton energy of 0.165 MeV, one obtains the level of \(^{12}\mathrm{C}\), \(E = 16.11\) MeV. To illustrate the resonance effect of the \(p\gamma\) reaction, Fig. 24 gives the yield curve of gamma rays in \(p\)-capture in carbon,
\[ ^{12}\mathrm{C}(p\gamma)^{13}\mathrm{N}^{60}. \]
Fig. 21. Yield of excited \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) in inelastic scattering of protons by lithium.
Fig. 22. Yield of radioactive \(^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) in the reaction \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dp)^{8}\mathrm{Li}\).
From the position of the maximum (0.453 MeV) one obtains the level of the nucleus \(^{13}\mathrm{N}\), \(E = 2.34\) MeV.
The presence of resonance levels of the intermediate nucleus is sometimes manifested not in the appearance of maxima on the yield curve of the reaction products, but in a more or less abrupt increase of the yield at the resonance points. Such a form is exhibited, for example, by the neutron yield curve in the reaction
\[ ^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n)^{12}\mathrm{C}^{61}, \]
shown in Fig. 25. From the positions of the breaks in the yield curve \((1.3,\ 2.4,\ 3.3,\ 4.3,\ldots)\), the following levels of the nucleus \(^{13}\mathrm{C}\) are obtained: \(E = 11.5,\ 12.3,\ 12.9,\ 13.6,\ldots\) MeV.
Finally, we shall also mention anomalous (resonance) scattering of alpha particles, which makes it possible, from the positions of the resonance maxima, to find the levels of the intermediate nucleus \((A+4)Z+2\). With the aid of this method
it has been possible to establish a series of levels of \(^{8}\mathrm{Be}\), \(^{16}\mathrm{O}\), \(^{20}\mathrm{Ne}\), and others (from the anomalous scattering of alpha particles by helium, carbon, oxygen, etc.).
It follows from experiment that the same nuclear levels can be excited by different paths. Thus, for example, the \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) level at \(0.48\) MeV is excited as a result of the reactions \(^{6}\mathrm{Li}(dp)^{7}\mathrm{Li}\), \(^{7}\mathrm{Be}(K)^{7}\mathrm{Li}\), \(^{9}\mathrm{Be}(d\alpha)^{7}\mathrm{Li}\), \(^{10}\mathrm{B}(n\alpha)^{7}\mathrm{Li}\), and also as a result of the inelastic scattering of protons and alpha particles\(^{27}\); a series of levels of \(^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) is excited in the reactions \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn)^{8}\mathrm{Be}\), \(^{10}\mathrm{B}(d\alpha)^{8}\mathrm{Be}\), \(^{11}\mathrm{B}(p\alpha)^{8}\mathrm{Be}\)\(^{27}\), just as a series of levels of \(^{12}\mathrm{C}\) is excited in the reactions \(^{11}\mathrm{B}(dn)^{12}\mathrm{C}\), \(^{14}\mathrm{N}(d\alpha)^{12}\mathrm{C}\), \(^{15}\mathrm{N}(p\alpha)^{12}\mathrm{C}\), etc. Earlier we indicated that the metastable state of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}\) is excited upon bom-
Fig. 23. Yield of alpha particles in the reaction \(^{11}\mathrm{B}(p\alpha)^{8}\mathrm{Be}\).
Fig. 24. Yield of gamma radiation in the \(p\)-capture reaction \(^{12}\mathrm{C}(p\gamma)^{13}\mathrm{N}\).
bardment of indium by electrons and upon irradiation with X-rays, and also as a result of the inelastic scattering of neutrons, protons, and alpha particles. This state is also excited as a result of the reaction \(^{115}\mathrm{Cd}(\beta^{-})^{115}\mathrm{In}\)\(^{47}\). In exactly the same way the metastable state of \(^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\) arises as a result of the reactions \(^{87}\mathrm{Y}(K)^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\), \(^{87}\mathrm{Rb}(pn)^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\), \(^{86}\mathrm{Sr}(n\gamma)^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\)\(^{62}\), or the metastable state of \(^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\)—as a result of the reactions \(^{80}\mathrm{Se}(\alpha n)^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\), \(^{82}\mathrm{Kr}(dp)^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\)\(^{63}\), \(^{83}\mathrm{Br}(\beta^{-})^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\)\(^{26}\), \(^{82}\mathrm{Kr}(n\gamma)^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\), and upon irradiation with X-rays, etc. All the examples given above concern levels of the final nucleus.
As a result of different reactions, the same levels of the intermediate nucleus may also be excited. Thus, the 17.17 and 17.45 MeV levels of the \(^{9}\mathrm{Be}\) nucleus are excited both in the reaction \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dp)^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) and in the reaction \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn)^{8}\mathrm{Be}\)\(^{58}\), for which this nucleus is intermediate. As a result of the reactions \(^{12}\mathrm{C}(dp)^{13}\mathrm{C}\) and \(^{12}\mathrm{C}(dn)^{13}\mathrm{N}\), levels of the \(^{14}\mathrm{N}\) nucleus (11.05, 11.26, 11.37, and 11.8 MeV)\(^{56}\) are excited, which is the pro-
intermediate for these reactions. The same is true in the case of the level of the intermediate nucleus \(^{15}\mathrm{N}\), 12.10 MeV, excited in the reactions \(^{14}\mathrm{N}(np)^{14}\mathrm{C}\) and \(^{14}\mathrm{N}(n\alpha)^{11}\mathrm{B}^{53}\).
However, alongside facts testifying to the possibility of exciting the same nuclear levels by different paths, one may cite a large number of experimental facts from which it follows that there exist levels excited by one path and not excited by others. Thus, of the two lowest known levels of the \(^{20}\mathrm{Ne}\) nucleus, 1.5 and 2.2 MeV, excited as a result of the reaction \(^{19}\mathrm{F}(dn)^{20}\mathrm{Ne}^{64}\), in the beta decay of \(^{20}\mathrm{F}\) only the 2.2 level is excited, as follows from the maximum energy of the electrons\(^{65}\). On the other hand, in inelastic scattering of protons by neon only the level 1.5 is excited\(^{42}\). Let us cite another example of levels of the nucleus \(^{56}\mathrm{Fe}\): of the four levels of this nucleus, 0.845, 2.09, 2.66, and 2.98 MeV, the first, third, and fourth are excited as a result of the decay \(^{56}\mathrm{Mn}(\beta^+)^{56}\mathrm{Fe}\), whereas the second is excited as a result of the decay \(^{56}\mathrm{Co}(\beta^+)^{56}\mathrm{Fe}^{66}\). An analogous phenomenon is also observed in the case of levels of the intermediate nucleus. Thus, the level of the nucleus \(^{9}\mathrm{Be}\), 17.71 MeV, is excited in the reaction \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dp)^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) and is not excited in the reaction \(^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn)^{8}\mathrm{Be}^{58}\), or the level \(^{14}\mathrm{N}\), 11.49 MeV, is excited in the reaction \(^{12}\mathrm{C}(dp)^{13}\mathrm{C}\) and is not excited in the reaction \(^{12}\mathrm{C}(dn)^{13}\mathrm{N}\), in which, conversely, the level 11.6 MeV is excited, which is not excited in the first reaction\(^{56}\).
Fig. 25. Yield of neutrons in the reaction \(^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n)^{12}\mathrm{C}\).
All the facts cited above are undoubtedly closely connected with the peculiarities of the structure of nuclei and the properties of their energy states, manifested in the different probabilities of the corresponding quantum transitions of the nuclear system. Therefore, the study of the excitation conditions of various nuclear levels, the yields of nuclear reactions, and the probabilities of quantum transitions in the nucleus, together with the establishment of a system of levels for the greatest possible number of nuclei and with the obtaining of the most accurate possible values of the energy of each individual level, represents a problem of enormous importance from the point of view of the dynamical theory of the nucleus.
Below we give a summary of experimental data relating to the system of energy levels of various nuclei.
III
The compilation has been drawn up in the form of a table on the basis of data published up to January 1, 1949. The table gives the ordinal number \(Z\) and the symbol of the element, the number of neutrons \(N\), and the mass number \(A\) of the corresponding isotope, its activity, and the energy of the various quantum states of the nucleus in MeV (the normal state corresponds to energy 0). Further indicated are the nuclear reactions that lead to the excitation of the corresponding level, and references to the literature. In this connection, for data included in review articles (for example, data relating to the levels of light nuclei), as a rule a reference is given to the review article, in which further references to the original literature may be found. Finally, the method by which a given nuclear level was established is indicated.
The most reliable energy values, obtained from different nuclear reactions or by different methods, are given in boldface. In a number of cases (this applies mainly to medium and heavy nuclei), owing to insufficient data for constructing a level scheme, only the energy values of the gamma quanta emitted by the corresponding nucleus are given.
The energy values of levels obtained by various methods have different accuracy. The most accurate are the data obtained from internal conversion and from spectrographic measurements of gamma spectra, as well as the data relating to intermediate nuclei and obtained from the resonance yield of a reaction. Less accurate are the data obtained from measurements of recoil-nucleus energies, especially from measurements of neutron spectra. Because of insufficient resolution, many of the simple levels listed are in fact undoubtedly complex, as is the case for levels whose unresolved fine structure is indicated by the fine structure of gamma rays.
The level scheme itself cannot always be established unambiguously. The most reliable schemes should be considered those established as a result of a sufficiently detailed study of beta- and gamma-ray spectra (in the case of nuclei arising in beta decay), with observation of \(\beta\gamma\)- and \(\gamma\gamma\)-coincidences, as well as schemes established from the spectrum of alpha particles, protons, or neutrons produced in the decay of an intermediate nucleus (if the energy effect of the reaction is known), and schemes obtained from resonance effects (if the masses of the initial and intermediate nuclei are known). In the case of elements having two or several stable isotopes, it is not always possible to assign particular levels to a definite nucleus.
For the reasons indicated, our information on the energy levels of nuclei is at present still extremely meager, and only for a very small number of nuclei is the level scheme represented by a more or less considerable number of components (see the table).
ENERGY LEVELS OF ATOMIC NUCLEI
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | He | 3 | 5 | \(\alpha+n\) | 0 0.24 |
— \({}^{4}\mathrm{He}(nn){}^{4}\mathrm{He}\) \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn){}^{5}\mathrm{He}\) |
— 67 68 |
— Anomalous scattering of \(n\) \(\alpha\) spectrum |
| 3 | Li | 2 | 5 | \(\beta^{-},\ p+\alpha\) | 0 six levels |
— \({}^{1}\mathrm{H}(\alpha p){}^{4}\mathrm{He}\) |
— 69, 70 |
— \(p\) spectrum |
| 3 | Li | 3 | 6 | — | 0 3.0? |
— \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(p\lambda){}^{6}\mathrm{Li}\) |
— 27, 71 |
— \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 3 | Li | 4 | 7 | — \(\gamma\) |
0 0.480 [[unclear: handwritten annotation in levels column]] |
— \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(pp'){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(\alpha\alpha'){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) \({}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(K){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(n\alpha){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(d\alpha){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) \({}^{6}\mathrm{Li}(dp){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) \({}^{6}\mathrm{Li}(n\alpha){}^{3}\mathrm{T}\) |
— 27, 72, 73 27 27 27, 74 27, 75 27, 75 27 |
— \(\gamma\) spectrum; inelastic scattering \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) spectra \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) spectra \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) spectra Resonance yield of \(\alpha\) |
| 4 | Be | 4 | 8 | \(\alpha+\alpha\) \(\alpha+\alpha,\ \gamma\) \(\gamma\) |
0 3.0 3.4±0.4? 4.8 7.0 |
— \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(p\gamma){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(d\alpha){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}(p\alpha){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) \({}^{8}\mathrm{Li}(\beta^{-}){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(d\alpha){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(d\alpha){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) |
— 76 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 |
— \(\gamma\) spectrum \(n\) spectrum \(\alpha\) spectrum \(\alpha\) spectrum \(\alpha\) spectrum \(n\) and \(\gamma\) spectra \(\alpha\) spectrum \(\alpha\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 | Be | 4 | 8 | 7.0 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) | 27 | Neutron spectrum | |
| 4 | Be | 4 | 8 | 9.8 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) | 27 | Neutron spectrum | |
| 4 | Be | 4 | 8 | \(\gamma\) | 17.57 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(p\gamma){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) | 27, 76 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 4 | Be | 4 | 8 | \(\gamma\) | 18.13 | — | 27 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 4 | Be | 4 | 8 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(pp'){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) | 27 | Resonance inelastic scattering | ||
| 4 | Be | 4 | 8 | 19.15 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(pn){}^{7}\mathrm{Be}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \(n\) and \({}^{7}\mathrm{Be}\) | |
| 4 | Be | 5 | 9 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 4 | Be | 5 | 9 | 2.42 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(pp'){}^{9}\mathrm{Be}\) | 77 | Inelastic scattering, \(\beta\)-spectrum | |
| 4 | Be | 5 | 9 | 17.17 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dp){}^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \({}^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) | |
| 4 | Be | 5 | 9 | 17.17 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \(n\) and \(\gamma\) | |
| 4 | Be | 5 | 9 | 17.45 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dn){}^{8}\mathrm{Be}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \(n\) and \(\gamma\) | |
| 4 | Be | 5 | 9 | 17.45 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dp){}^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \({}^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) | |
| 4 | Be | 5 | 9 | 17.71 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(dp){}^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \({}^{8}\mathrm{Li}\) | |
| 4 | Be | 6 | 10 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 4 | Be | 6 | 10 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 7.19 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(n\alpha){}^{6}\mathrm{He}\) | 27, 78 | \(\alpha\)-resonance |
| 4 | Be | 6 | 10 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 9.03 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(n\alpha){}^{6}\mathrm{He}\) | 27, 78 | \(\sigma\)-resonance and resonance yield of \({}^{6}\mathrm{He}\) |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 0.411 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(dn){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 79, 80 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 0.411 | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(pp'){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 80 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 0.718 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(dn){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 79, 80 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 0.718 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(dn){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 81 | Neutron spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(p\gamma){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 27, 80 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 0,718 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(\alpha n){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 1,024? | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(dn){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 79 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | 1,2 | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(\alpha n){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) | |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 1,435 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(dn){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 79,80 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 2,170 | same | 27,79 | \(\gamma\) and \(n\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 2 924? | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(\alpha n){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 3,425 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(dn){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 79 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 6,78 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(dn){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 27,79 | \(\gamma\) and \(n\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 7,09? | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(p\gamma){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 7,26? | same | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 7,38 | same | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 7,47 | same | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 7,72 | same | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) |
| 5 | B | 5 | 10 | \(\gamma\) | 8,76 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(p\alpha){}^{6}\mathrm{Li}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) and \(\alpha\) |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | \(\gamma?\) | 2,1 | \({}^{14}\mathrm{N}(n\alpha){}^{11}\mathrm{B}\) | 27 | Resonance, \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | \(\gamma?\) | 2,1 | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(dp){}^{11}\mathrm{B}\) | 27 | \(p\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | \(\gamma?\) | 4,4 | same | 27 | \(p\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | \(\gamma?\) | 5,8 | same | 27 | \(p\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | 11,5? | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(n\alpha){}^{7}\mathrm{Li}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(\alpha\) | |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | 13,1 | 27 | Resonance yield \(\alpha\) | ||
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | 13,5? | \({}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(\alpha n){}^{10}\mathrm{B}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) | |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | 13,5? | same | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) | |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | 13,8? | same | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) | |
| 5 | B | 6 | 11 | 14,2? | same | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) | |
| 6 | C | 5 | 11 | \(\beta^{+}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 6 | C | 5 | 11 | \(\gamma?\) | 2,3? | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(dn){}^{11}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | \(n\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | 3.0? | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(n\) | |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | 4.3 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(n\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | 4.3 | \({}^{15}\mathrm{N}(p\alpha){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | 4.3 | \({}^{14}\mathrm{N}(d\alpha){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(\alpha\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | 4.3 | \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}(dn){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(n\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | \(7.1 \pm 0.4\) | \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}(dn){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(n\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | \(7.1 \pm 0.4\) | \({}^{14}\mathrm{N}(d\alpha){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(\alpha\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | \(7.1 \pm 0.4\) | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Yield \(\gamma\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | 9.5 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | 9.5 | \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}(dn){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(n\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | 10.3? | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma\) | 10.8? | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma, \alpha\) | 16.11 | \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}(p\gamma){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\), spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 6 | C | 6 | 12 | \(\gamma?\) | 16.71? | \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}(p\gamma){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 0.8 | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(\alpha p){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(p\) | |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | \(\gamma\) | 3.18 | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(\alpha p){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(p\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | \(\gamma\) | 3.18 | \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(dp){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(p\) |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 3.95 | \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(dp){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(p\) | |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 3.95 | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(\alpha p){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(p\) | |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 5.0? | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(\alpha p){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(p\) | |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 6.0? | \({}^{10}\mathrm{B}(\alpha p){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Spectrum \(p\) | |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 8.25 | \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(nn){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance scattering \(n\) | |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 8.90 | \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(nn){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance scattering \(n\) | |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 11.86 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27, 81 | Resonance yield \(n\) | |
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 12.3 | \({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(n\) |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6 | C | 7 | 13 | 12.9 13.6 18 levels above 13.6 (up to 16.6) |
\({}^{9}\mathrm{Be}(\alpha n){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) ” ” |
27 27 27 |
Resonance yield of \(n\) Resonance yield of \(n\) Resonance yield of \(n\) |
|
| 6 | C | 8 | 14 | \(\beta^{-}\) \(\gamma?\) |
0 5.24 |
— \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(dp){}^{14}\mathrm{C}\) |
— 27 |
— Spectrum of \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 7 | N | 6 | 13 | \(\beta^{+}\) \(\gamma\) |
0 2.34 |
— \({}^{12}\mathrm{C}(p\gamma){}^{13}\mathrm{N}\) |
— 27 |
— Spectrum of \(\gamma\) and resonance yield of \(\gamma\) |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | 4.0? | \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}(\alpha n){}^{14}\mathrm{N}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \(n\) | |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | 4.8? | ” | 27 | Resonance yield of \(n\) | |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | \(\gamma\) | 5.4 | ” | 27 | Resonance yield of \(n\) |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(dn){}^{14}\mathrm{N}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \(\gamma\) | ||
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(p\gamma){}^{14}\mathrm{N}\) | 27 | Spectrum of \(\gamma\) | ||
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | 6.1? | \({}^{11}\mathrm{B}(\alpha n){}^{14}\mathrm{N}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \(n\) | |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | 6.6? | ” | 27 | Resonance yield of \(n\) | |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | \(\gamma\) | 8.07 | \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(p\gamma){}^{14}\mathrm{N}\) | 27 | Resonance yield of \(\gamma\) and spectrum |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | \(\gamma?\) | 11.05 | \({}^{12}\mathrm{C}(dn){}^{13}\mathrm{N}\) \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(dp){}^{13}\mathrm{C}\) |
27, 82 27 |
Resonance yield of \(n\), \(\gamma\), and \({}^{13}\mathrm{N}\) Resonance yield of \(p\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | \(\gamma?\) | 11.26 | ” \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(dn){}^{13}\mathrm{N}\) |
27 27, 82 |
Resonance yield of \(p\) and \(\gamma\) Resonance yield of \(n\), \(\gamma\), and \({}^{13}\mathrm{N}\) |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | \(\gamma?\) | 11.37 | 27, 82 | Resonance yield of \(n\), \(\gamma\), and \({}^{13}\mathrm{N}\) |
Continuation
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | γ? | 11.37 | $^{13}\mathrm{C}(dp)^{13}\mathrm{C}$ | 27 | Resonance yield of $p$ and γ |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | γ? | 11.49 | $^{13}\mathrm{C}(dp)^{13}\mathrm{C}$ | 27 | Resonance yield of $p$ and γ |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | 11.6 | $^{12}\mathrm{C}(dn)^{13}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Resonance yield of $n$ | |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | γ? | 11.8? | $^{12}\mathrm{C}(dn)^{13}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Resonance yield of $n$ |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | 12.3 | $^{13}\mathrm{C}(dp)^{13}\mathrm{C}$ | 27 | Resonance yield of $p$ and γ | |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | 9 levels in the interval 14.42—16.92 | $^{13}\mathrm{C}(dn)^{13}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Resonance yield of $n$ | |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | Series of levels | $^{10}\mathrm{B}(an)^{13}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Resonance yield of $^{13}\mathrm{N}$ | |
| 7 | N | 7 | 14 | Series of levels | $^{12}\mathrm{C}(dp)^{13}\mathrm{C}$ | 83 | Resonance yield of $p$ | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | γ | 5.39 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(dp)^{15}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Spectrum of $p$ and γ |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 6.0? | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(dp)^{15}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Spectrum of $p$ | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 7.2 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(dp)^{15}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Spectrum of $p$ | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | γ? | 8.2 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(dp)^{15}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Spectrum of $p$ |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 11.21 | $^{14}\mathrm{C}(pn)^{14}\mathrm{N}$ | 84 | Resonance | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 11.34 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(np)^{14}\mathrm{C}$ | 27, 85 | Resonance yield of $p$ | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 11.34 | $^{14}\mathrm{C}(pn)^{14}\mathrm{N}$ | 84 | Resonance | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 11.34 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(np)^{14}\mathrm{C}$ | 27, 85 | Resonance yield of $p$ | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 12.10 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(np)^{14}\mathrm{C}$ | 27, 85 | Resonance yield of $p$ | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 12.10 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(n\alpha)^{11}\mathrm{B}$ | 85 | Resonance yield of α | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 12.10 | $^{11}\mathrm{B}(an)^{14}\mathrm{N}$ | 27 | Resonance | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 12.40 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(n\alpha)^{11}\mathrm{B}$ | 85 | Resonance yield of α | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 12.40 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(np)^{14}\mathrm{C}$ | 85 | Resonance yield of $p$ | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 12.80 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(np)^{14}\mathrm{C}$ | 85 | Resonance yield of $p$ | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 12.80 | $^{14}\mathrm{N}(n\alpha)^{11}\mathrm{B}$ | 85 | Resonance yield of α | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 12.80 | $^{11}\mathrm{B}(an)^{14}\mathrm{N}$ | 27, 86 | Resonance | |
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | about 20 levels in the interval 12.5—17.5 |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 7 | N | 8 | 15 | 17.47 | \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(dp){}^{14}\mathrm{C}\) \({}^{13}\mathrm{C}(dn){}^{14}\mathrm{N}\) |
27 27 |
Resonance yield \(p\) Resonance yield \(\gamma\) |
|
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | \(\gamma\) | 6.13±0.06 | \({}^{19}\mathrm{F}(p\alpha){}^{16}\mathrm{O}\) \({}^{16}\mathrm{N}(\beta^-){}^{16}\mathrm{O}\) |
27, 76, 87 27 |
\(\gamma\) spectrum; \(\alpha\) spectrum \(\beta^-\) spectrum |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | \(\gamma\) | 6.3 | ditto | 27 | \(\beta^-\) spectrum |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | \(\gamma\) | 6.98±0.07 | \({}^{19}\mathrm{F}(p\alpha){}^{16}\mathrm{O}\) ditto \({}^{16}\mathrm{N}(\beta^-){}^{16}\mathrm{O}\) |
27 27, 87 27 |
\(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\beta^-\) spectrum |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | \(\sim 10.5\) | \({}^{12}\mathrm{C}(\alpha\alpha){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Anomalous \(\alpha\) scattering | |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | \(\sim 10.8\) | ditto | 27 | Anomalous \(\alpha\) scattering | |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | \(\sim 11.2\) | ditto | 27 | Anomalous \(\alpha\) scattering | |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | 12.94 | \({}^{15}\mathrm{N}(p\alpha){}^{12}\mathrm{C}\) | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) | |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | 13.08 | ditto | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) | |
| 8 | O | 8 | 16 | 13.2 | ditto | 27 | Resonance yield \(\gamma\) | |
| 8 | O | 9 | 17 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 8 | O | 9 | 17 | 0.93±0.09 | \({}^{14}\mathrm{N}(\alpha p){}^{17}\mathrm{O}\) \({}^{16}\mathrm{O}(dp){}^{17}\mathrm{O}\) |
88 88, 89, 90 |
\(p\) spectrum \(p\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum |
|
| 8 | O | 9 | 17 | 0.93±0.09 | \({}^{19}\mathrm{F}(d\alpha){}^{17}\mathrm{O}\) | 91 | \(\alpha\) spectrum | |
| 8 | O | 9 | 17 | 2.95 | ditto | 91 | \(\alpha\) spectrum | |
| 8 | O | 9 | 17 | 3.77 | ditto | 91 | \(\alpha\) spectrum | |
| 8 | O | 9 | 17 | 4.99 | ditto | 91 | \(\alpha\) spectrum | |
| 9 | F | 10 | 19 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 9 | F | 10 | 19 | 1.6 | \({}^{19}\mathrm{O}(\beta^-){}^{19}\mathrm{F}\) | 92 | \(\beta^-\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 9 | F | 11 | 20 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 9 | F | 11 | 20 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0.7 | \(^{19}\mathrm{F}(dp)^{20}\mathrm{F}\) | 93 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 9 | F | 11 | 20 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 1.0 | » | 93 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 9 | F | 11 | 20 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 1.35 | » | 93 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 9 | F | 11 | 20 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 1.9 | » | 93 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 1.5 | \(^{20}\mathrm{Ne}(pp')^{20}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 27 | Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | \(^{19}\mathrm{F}(dn)^{20}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 27 | \(n\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum | |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 2.2 | 27 | \(n\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum | |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | \(^{20}\mathrm{F}(\beta^{-})^{20}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 27 | \(\beta^{-}\) spectrum | |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 4.2 | \(^{19}\mathrm{F}(dn)^{20}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 27 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 5.4 | » | 27 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 7.1 | » | 27 | \(n\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 7.8 | » | 27 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 9.0 | » | 27 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 10.1 | » | 27 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 10 | 20 | \(\gamma\) | 14 levels between 13.21 and 14.19 | \(^{19}\mathrm{F}(p\gamma)^{20}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 27, 94 | Resonance \(\gamma\) yield |
| 10 | Ne | 11 | 21 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 10 | Ne | 11 | 21 | — | 0.31 | \(^{20}\mathrm{Ne}(dp)^{21}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 95, 96 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 11 | 21 | — | 1.75 | » | 95 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 11 | 21 | — | \(^{23}\mathrm{Na}(d\alpha)^{21}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 97 | \(\alpha\) spectrum | |
| 10 | Ne | 11 | 21 | — | 2.83 | \(^{20}\mathrm{Ne}(dp)^{21}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 95 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 11 | 21 | — | 3.58 | » | 95 | \(p\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10 | Ne | 12 | 22 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 10 | Ne | 12 | 22 | — | 1.3 | \(^{19}\mathrm{F}(\alpha p)^{22}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 14, 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 12 | 22 | — | 3.3 | ” | 14, 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 12 | 22 | — | 4.6 | ” | 14, 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 13 | 23 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 10 | Ne | 13 | 23 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0.99 | \(^{23}\mathrm{Ne}(dp)^{23}\mathrm{Ne}\) | 95 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 10 | Ne | 13 | 23 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 1.66 | ” | 95 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 11 | Na | 13 | 24 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 11 | Na | 13 | 24 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0.38 | \(^{23}\mathrm{Na}(dp)^{24}\mathrm{Na}\) | 97 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 11 | Na | 13 | 24 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 1.26 | ” | 97 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 11 | Na | 13 | 24 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 2.8 | ” | 99 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 11 | Na | 13 | 24 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 3.38 | ” | 97 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | \(\gamma\) | 1.38 | \(^{24}\mathrm{Na}(\beta^{-})^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 16, 100 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | \(\gamma\) | 1.38 | \(^{24}\mathrm{Mg}(pp')^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 101, 102 | Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | \(\gamma\) | 1.38 | \(^{24}\mathrm{Mg}(nn')^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 43 | Inelastic scattering, \(n\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | \(\gamma\) | \(1.7 \pm 0.3\) | \(^{24}\mathrm{Mg}(pp')^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 102 | Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | \(\gamma\) | \(2.7 \pm 0.5?\) | ” | 102 | Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | \(\gamma\) | 4.14 | \(^{24}\mathrm{Na}(\beta^{-})^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 16, 100 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | \(\gamma\) | 4.14 | \(^{24}\mathrm{Mg}(pp')^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 102 | Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | — | \(6.0 \pm 0.3\) | \({}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}(pp'){}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 102 | Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | — | \(8.1 \pm 0.3\) | same | 102 | Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 12 | 24 | — | \(9.2 \pm 0.5\) | same | 102 | Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 13 | 25 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 12 | Mg | 13 | 25 | — | 0.7 | \({}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}(dp){}^{25}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 44 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 13 | 25 | — | 1.35 | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(d\alpha){}^{25}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 103, 104 | \(\alpha\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 13 | 25 | — | 1.70 | same | 103 | \(\alpha\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 13 | 25 | — | 2.25 | \({}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}(dp){}^{25}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 44 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 13 | 25 | — | 2.25 | same | 44 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | — | 0.27 | \({}^{23}\mathrm{Na}(\alpha p){}^{26}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 105, 106 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | — | 0.60 | same | 105 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | — | 1.1 | same | 98, 105 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | \(\gamma\) | 1.74 | same | 105, 106, 107 | \(p\) and \(\gamma\) spectra |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | \(\gamma\) | 1.74 | \({}^{25}\mathrm{Mg}(dp){}^{26}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 108, 109 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | — | 2.3 | \({}^{23}\mathrm{Na}(\alpha p){}^{26}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 14, 108 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | \(\gamma\) | 2.74 | same | 98, 105, 106, 107, 109 |
\(p\) and \(\gamma\) spectra |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | \(\gamma\) | 2.74 | \({}^{25}\mathrm{Mg}(dp){}^{26}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 108, 109 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | — | 4.0 | \({}^{23}\mathrm{Na}(\alpha p){}^{26}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 14, 108, 109 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 12 | Mg | 14 | 26 | — | 5.0 | \({}^{23}\mathrm{Na}(\alpha p){}^{26}\mathrm{Mg}\) | 141, 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 13 | Al | 14 | 27 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 13 | Al | 14 | 27 | \(\gamma\) | 0.84 | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Mg}(\beta^-)\,{}^{27}\mathrm{Al}\) \({}^{27}\mathrm{Mg}(\alpha p)\,{}^{27}\mathrm{Al}\) \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(pp')\,{}^{27}\mathrm{Al}\) |
92, 110 13 111 |
\(\gamma\) spectrum \(p\) spectrum Inelastic scattering, \(p\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 14 | 27 | \(\gamma\) | 1.02 | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Mg}(\beta^-)\,{}^{27}\mathrm{Al}\) | 92, 112, 113 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 14 | 27 | \(\gamma\) | 1.48 | » | 92, 110 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 14 | 27 | \(\gamma\) | 1.7 | \({}^{24}\mathrm{Mg}(\alpha p)\,{}^{27}\mathrm{Al}\) | 13, 107 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 14 | 27 | \(\gamma\) | \(4.3 \pm 0.3?\) | » | 107 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 15 | 28 | \(\beta^-\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 13 | Al | 15 | 28 | \(\beta^-\) | 0.8 | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(dp)\,{}^{28}\mathrm{Al}\) | 104, 109 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 15 | 28 | \(\beta^-\) | 2.3 | » | 104, 109 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 15 | 28 | \(\beta^-\) | 3.5 | » | 104 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 15 | 28 | \(\beta^-\) | 4.7 | » | 104 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 13 | Al | 15 | 28 | \(\beta^-\) | 20 levels between 0 and 6.5 | » | 103 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 14 | Si | 14 | 28 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 14 | Si | 14 | 28 | \(\gamma\) | 1.80 | \({}^{28}\mathrm{Al}(\beta^-)\,{}^{28}\mathrm{Si}\) | 17, 92, 112 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 14 | Si | 14 | 28 | \(\gamma\) | 36 levels between 10.85 and 11.97 | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(p\gamma)\,{}^{28}\mathrm{Si}\) | 114 | Resonance \(\gamma\) yield |
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | — | 0.9 | \({}^{29}\mathrm{Si}(dp)\,{}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\) \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(\alpha p)\,{}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\) |
108 98, 99 |
\(p\) spectrum \(p\) spectrum |
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | — | 1.9 | \({}^{29}\mathrm{Si}(dp)\,{}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\) | 108 | \(p\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | \(\gamma\) | 2.28 | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(\alpha p){}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\) | 14, 98, 99, 108, 115 | \(p\) spectrum and \(p\gamma\)-coincidences |
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | \(\gamma\) | 2.8 | \({}^{29}\mathrm{Si}(dp){}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\) | 108 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | \(\gamma\) | 3.66 | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(\alpha p){}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\) | 14, 98, 99, 107, 108, 109, 115 | \(p\) and \(\gamma\) spectra, \(p\gamma\)-coincidences |
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | \(\gamma\) | 4.8 | \({}^{29}\mathrm{Si}(dp){}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\) | 108 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | \(\gamma\) | 4.8 | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(\alpha p){}^{30}\mathrm{Si}\) | 14, 99, 108, 115 | \(p\) spectrum, \(p\gamma\)-coincidences |
| 14 | Si | 16 | 30 | \(\gamma\) | 6.1 | » | 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 14 | Si | 17 | 31 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 14 | Si | 17 | 31 | \(\beta^{-}\) | \(\sim 0.7\) | \({}^{31}\mathrm{P}(np){}^{31}\mathrm{Si}\) | 116 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 15 | P | 15 | 30 | \(\beta^{+}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 15 | P | 15 | 30 | \(\beta^{+}\) | \(1.02 \pm 0.12\) | \({}^{27}\mathrm{Al}(\alpha n){}^{30}\mathrm{P}\) | 117 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 15 | P | 16 | 31 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 15 | P | 16 | 31 | — | 0.44 | \({}^{30}\mathrm{Si}(dn){}^{31}\mathrm{P}\) | 117 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 15 | P | 16 | 31 | — | 1.05 | » | 117 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 15 | P | 16 | 31 | — | 1.05 | \({}^{28}\mathrm{Si}(\alpha p){}^{31}\mathrm{P}\) | 13 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 15 | P | 16 | 31 | — | 1.65 | » | 13 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 15 | P | 16 | 31 | \(\gamma\) | \(2.3 \pm 0.3?\) | \({}^{30}\mathrm{Si}(dn){}^{31}\mathrm{P}\) | 117 | \(n\) spectrum |
| 15 | P | 16 | 31 | \(\gamma\) | \(2.3 \pm 0.3?\) | \({}^{28}\mathrm{Si}(\alpha p){}^{31}\mathrm{P}\) | 107 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 17 | 33 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 16 | S | 17 | 33 | — | 1.0 | \({}^{32}\mathrm{S}(dp){}^{33}\mathrm{S}\) | 118, 119 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 17 | 33 | — | 2.0 | » | 118, 119 | \(p\) spectrum |
Continuation
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 16 | S | 17 | 33 | — | 2.94 | \(^{32}\mathrm{S}(d,p)^{33}\mathrm{S}\) | 118, 119, 120 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 17 | 33 | — | 3.84 | \(^{32}\mathrm{S}(d,p)^{33}\mathrm{S}\) | 118, 119 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 17 | 33 | — | 4.76 | » | 118, 119 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 17 | 33 | — | 5.53 | » | 118, 119, 120 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | — | 1.22 | \(^{31}\mathrm{P}(\alpha,p)^{34}\mathrm{S}\) | 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | — | 1.9 | \(^{34}\mathrm{P}(\beta^{-})^{34}\mathrm{S}\) | 121 | \(\beta\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | \(\gamma\) | 2.6 | \(^{31}\mathrm{P}(\alpha,p)^{34}\mathrm{S}\) | 14, 98, 107, 122 | \(p\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | — | 3.4 | » | 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | \(\gamma\) | \(4.2 \pm 0.5\) | » | 14, 98, 107, 109, 122 | \(\gamma\) and \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | — | 4.87? | » | 14 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | — | 5.70 | » | 14, 122 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 16 | S | 18 | 34 | — | 6.37? | » | 14 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 17 | Cl | 18 | 35 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 17 | Cl | 18 | 35 | — | 0.6 | \(^{32}\mathrm{S}(\alpha,p)^{35}\mathrm{Cl}\) | 13, 123 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 17 | Cl | 18 | 35 | \(\gamma\) | \(1.6 \pm 0.3\) | » | 13, 109, 123 | \(\gamma\) and \(p\) spectrum |
| 17 | Cl | 18 | 35 | \(\gamma\) | \(2.4 \pm 0.3?\) | » | 107 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 17 | Cl | 20 | 37 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 17 | Cl | 20 | 37 | \(\gamma\) | \(2.7 \pm 0.2\) | \(^{37}\mathrm{S}(\beta^{-})^{37}\mathrm{Cl}\) | 121 | \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 18 | A | 20 | 38 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 18 | A | 20 | 38 | — | 1.7 | \({}^{35}\mathrm{Cl}(\alpha p){}^{38}\mathrm{A}\) | 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 20 | 38 | \(\gamma\) | 2.15 | \({}^{38}\mathrm{Cl}(\beta^-){}^{38}\mathrm{A}\) | 124, 125 | \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectra |
| 18 | A | 20 | 38 | \(\gamma\) | 2.15 | \({}^{38}\mathrm{K}(\beta^+){}^{38}\mathrm{A}\) | 124 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 20 | 38 | \(\gamma\) | 3.75 | » | 124 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 20 | 38 | \(\gamma\) | 3.75 | \({}^{38}\mathrm{Cl}(\beta^-){}^{38}\mathrm{A}\) | 124, 125 | \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectra |
| 18 | A | 20 | 38 | \(\gamma\) | 4.3 | \({}^{35}\mathrm{Cl}(\alpha p){}^{38}\mathrm{A}\) | 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 22 | 40 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 18 | A | 22 | 40 | \(\gamma\) | 1.55 | \({}^{40}\mathrm{K}(K){}^{40}\mathrm{A}\) | 126, 127, 128, 129 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 23 | 41 | \(\beta^-\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 18 | A | 23 | 41 | \(\beta^-\) | 0.63 | \({}^{40}\mathrm{A}(dp){}^{41}\mathrm{A}\) | 130 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 23 | 41 | \(\beta^-\) | 1.17 | » | 130, 131 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 23 | 41 | \(\beta^-\) | 1.85 | » | 130 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 23 | 41 | \(\beta^-\) | 2.16 | » | 130, 131 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 18 | A | 23 | 41 | \(\beta^-\) | 2.87 | » | 130 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 19 | K | 22 | 41 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 19 | K | 22 | 41 | \(\gamma\) | \(1.3 \pm 0.2\) | \({}^{41}\mathrm{A}(\beta^-){}^{41}\mathrm{K}\) | 131, 132 | \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectra |
| 20 | Ca | 21 | 41 | \(K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 20 | Ca | 21 | 41 | \(K\) | 1.79 | \({}^{40}\mathrm{Ca}(dp){}^{41}\mathrm{Ca}\) | 133 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 20 | Ca | 22 | 42 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 20 | Ca | 22 | 42 | \(\gamma\) | 1.4 | \({}^{42}\mathrm{K}(\beta^-){}^{42}\mathrm{Ca}\) | 17, 92 | \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) spectra |
| 20 | Ca | 22 | 42 | \(\gamma\) | 1.4 | \({}^{39}\mathrm{K}(\alpha p){}^{42}\mathrm{Ca}\) | 98 | \(p\) spectrum |
Continuation
| Z | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels, MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 20 | Ca | 22 | 42 | 2.0 | \({}^{43}\mathrm{K}(\beta^-)\,{}^{43}\mathrm{Ca}\) | 92 | \(\beta\) spectrum | |
| 20 | Ca | 22 | 42 | 2.6 | \({}^{39}\mathrm{K}(\alpha p)\,{}^{43}\mathrm{Ca}\) | 98 | \(p\) spectrum | |
| 21 | Sc | 23 | 44 | \(\beta^+\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 21 | Sc | 23 | 44 | \(\beta^+\) | 0.27 | \({}^{41}\mathrm{K}(\alpha n)\,{}^{44}\mathrm{Sc}\) | 134 | Internal conversion |
| 21 | Sc | 23 | 44 | \(\beta^+\) | 0.27 | \({}^{43}\mathrm{Ca}(dn)\,{}^{44}\mathrm{Sc}\) | 134 | Internal conversion |
| 21 | Sc | 25 | 46 | \(\beta^-, K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 21 | Sc | 25 | 46 | \(\beta^-, K\) | 2.30 | \({}^{45}\mathrm{Sc}(dp)\,{}^{46}\mathrm{Sc}\) | 125 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 22 | Ti | 24 | 46 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 22 | Ti | 24 | 46 | \(\gamma\) | \(0.89 \pm 0.03\) | \({}^{46}\mathrm{Sc}(\beta^-)\,{}^{46}\mathrm{Ti}\) | 17, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 22 | Ti | 24 | 46 | \(\gamma\) | 2.01 | ” | 17, 135, 136, 138, 139, 140, 141 | \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectra |
| 22 | Ti | 26 | 48 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 22 | Ti | 26 | 48 | — | 1.1 | \({}^{45}\mathrm{Sc}(\alpha p)\,{}^{48}\mathrm{Ti}\) | 142 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 22 | Ti | 26 | 48 | — | 2.3 | ” | 142 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 23 | V | 28 | 51 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 23 | V | 28 | 51 | — | 0.237 | \({}^{51}\mathrm{Cr}(K)\,{}^{51}\mathrm{V}\) | 143 | \(\beta\) spectrum |
| 23 | V | 28 | 51 | — | 0.330 | ” | 143 | \(\beta\) spectrum |
| 23 | V | 28 | 51 | \(\gamma\) | 1.02 | \({}^{51}\mathrm{Ti}(\beta^-)\,{}^{51}\mathrm{V}\) | 137 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 23 | V | 28 | 51 | \(\gamma\) | 4.73 | \({}^{48}\mathrm{Ti}(\alpha p)\,{}^{51}\mathrm{V}\) | 144 | \(p\) spectrum |
| 23 | V | 28 | 51 | \(\gamma\) | 4.73 | ” | 144 | \(p\) spectrum |
Continuation
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 23 | V | 29 | 52 | β⁻ | 0 | — | — | — |
| 23 | V | 29 | 52 | β⁻ | 2.47 | ⁵¹V \((dp)\) ⁵²V | 123 | Spectrum \(p\) |
| 23 | V | 29 | 52 | β⁻ | 4.70 | » | 125 | Spectrum \(p\) |
| 24 | Cr | 28 | 52 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 24 | Cr | 28 | 52 | γ | 1.46±0.03 | ⁵²V \((\beta^-)\) ⁵²Cr | 145 | Spectrum γ |
| 24 | Cr | 28 | 52 | γ | 1.46±0.03 | ⁵²Mn \((\beta^+)\) ⁵²Cr | 145 | Spectrum γ |
| 24 | Cr | 28 | 52 | γ | 2.40 | » | 145 | Spectrum γ |
| 24 | Cr | 28 | 52 | γ | 3.13 | » | 145 | Spectrum γ |
| 24 | Cr | 30 | 54 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 24 | Cr | 30 | 54 | γ | 0.835 | ⁵⁴Mn \((K)\) ⁵⁴Cr | 17, 100 | Spectrum γ |
| 25 | Mn | 27 | 52 | β⁺, \(K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 25 | Mn | 27 | 52 | β⁺, \(K\) | 0.4 | — | 145 | Spectrum γ |
| 25 | Mn | 31 | 56 | β⁻ | 0 | — | — | — |
| 25 | Mn | 31 | 56 | β⁻ | 1.07 | ⁵⁵Mn \((dp)\) ⁵⁶Mn | 146 | Spectrum \(p\) |
| 25 | Mn | 31 | 56 | β⁻ | 1.77 | » | 125, 146 | Spectrum \(p\) |
| 25 | Mn | 31 | 56 | β⁻ | 2.48 | » | 146 | Spectrum \(p\) |
| 25 | Mn | 31 | 56 | β⁻ | 3.61 | » | 146 | Spectrum \(p\) |
| 25 | Mn | 31 | 56 | β⁻ | 4.38 | » | 146 | Spectrum \(p\) |
| 26 | Fe | 30 | 56 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 26 | Fe | 30 | 56 | γ | 0.833 | ⁵⁶Mn \((\beta^-)\) ⁵⁶Fe | 17, 66, 147 | Spectrum γ and β |
| 26 | Fe | 30 | 56 | γ | 0.833 | ⁵⁶Co \((\beta^+)\) ⁵⁶Fe | 17, 66 | Spectrum γ and β |
| 26 | Fe | 30 | 56 | γ | 2.10 | » | 17, 66 | Spectrum γ and β |
ENERGY LEVELS OF ATOMIC NUCLEI
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 26 | Fe | 30 | 56 | \(\gamma\) | 2.63 | \(^{56}\mathrm{Mn}\,(\beta^-)\,^{56}\mathrm{Fe}\) | 17, 66, 147 | \(\gamma\)- and \(\beta\)-spectrum |
| 26 | Fe | 30 | 56 | \(\gamma\) | 2.93 | \(^{56}\mathrm{Mn}\,(\beta^-)\,^{56}\mathrm{Fe}\) | 17, 66, 147 | \(\gamma\)- and \(\beta\)-spectrum |
| 26 | Fe | 32 | 58 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 26 | Fe | 32 | 58 | \(\gamma\) | 0.805 | \(^{58}\mathrm{Co}\,(\beta^+)\,^{58}\mathrm{Fe}\) | 17 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 26 | Fe | 32 | 58 | \(\gamma\) | 0.805 | \(^{58}\mathrm{Co}\,(K)\,^{58}\mathrm{Fe}\) | 17 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 27 | Co | 32 | 59 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 27 | Co | 32 | 59 | \(\gamma\) | 1.10 | \(^{59}\mathrm{Fe}\,(\beta^-)\,^{59}\mathrm{Co}\) | 17, 148 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 27 | Co | 32 | 59 | \(\gamma\) | 1.30 | \(^{59}\mathrm{Fe}\,(\beta^-)\,^{59}\mathrm{Co}\) | 17, 148 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 27 | Co | 33 | 60 | \(\beta^-\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 27 | Co | 33 | 60 | \(\beta^-\) | 1.75 | \(^{59}\mathrm{Co}\,(d,p)\,^{60}\mathrm{Co}\) | 149 | \(p\)-spectrum |
| 27 | Co | 33 | 60 | \(\beta^-\) | 3.03 | \(^{59}\mathrm{Co}\,(d,p)\,^{60}\mathrm{Co}\) | 149 | \(p\)-spectrum |
| 28 | Ni | 32 | 60 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 28 | Ni | 32 | 60 | \(\gamma\) | 1.13 | \(^{60}\mathrm{Co}\,(\beta^-)\,^{60}\mathrm{Ni}\) | 17, 100, 150 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 28 | Ni | 32 | 60 | \(\gamma\) | 1.50 | \(^{60}\mathrm{Cu}\,(\beta^+)\,^{60}\mathrm{Ni}\) | 151 | \(\gamma\)- and \(\beta\)-spectrum |
| 28 | Ni | 32 | 60 | \(\gamma\) | 2.40 | \(^{60}\mathrm{Co}\,(\beta^-)\,^{60}\mathrm{Ni}\) | 17, 100, 150 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 28 | Ni | 36 | 64 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 28 | Ni | 36 | 64 | \(\gamma\) | 1.30 | \(^{64}\mathrm{Cu}\,(\beta^+)\,^{64}\mathrm{Ni}\) | 23 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 28 | Ni | 36 | 64 | \(\gamma\) | 1.30 | \(^{64}\mathrm{Cu}\,(K)\,^{64}\mathrm{Ni}\) | 23, 152, 153 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
Continued
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 29 | Cu | 34 | 63 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 29 | Cu | 34 | 63 | \(\gamma\) | \(0.96 \pm 0.01\) | \({}^{63}\mathrm{Zn}(\beta^+){}^{63}\mathrm{Cu}\) | 23, 154 | \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 29 | Cu | 34 | 63 | \(\gamma\) | \(1.9 \pm 0.1\) | ” | 23, 154 | \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 29 | Cu | 36 | 65 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 29 | Cu | 36 | 65 | \(\gamma\) | 1.12? | \({}^{65}\mathrm{Zn}(K){}^{65}\mathrm{Cu}\) | 100, 148 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 29 | Cu | 36 | 65 | \(\gamma\) | 1.12? | \({}^{65}\mathrm{Zn}(\beta^+){}^{65}\mathrm{Cu}\) | 150 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 30 | Zn | 36 | 66 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 30 | Zn | 36 | 66 | \(\gamma\) | 1.32 | \({}^{66}\mathrm{Cu}(\beta^-){}^{66}\mathrm{Zn}\) | 155 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 30 | Zn | 37 | 67 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 30 | Zn | 37 | 67 | \(\gamma\) | 0.0925 | — | 134 | Internal conversion |
| 30 | Zn | 37 | 67 | \(\gamma\) | 0.180 | — | 134 | Internal conversion |
| 30 | Zn | 37 | 67 | \(\gamma\) | 0.297 | — | 134 | Internal conversion |
| 30 | Zn | 39 | 69 | \(\beta^-\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 30 | Zn | 39 | 69 | \(\gamma\) | 0.44 | — | 134 | Internal conversion |
| 31 | Ga | 36 | 67 | \(K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 31 | Ga | 36 | 67 | \(\gamma\) | 0.0925 | \({}^{66}\mathrm{Zn}(dn){}^{67}\mathrm{Ga}\) | 134, 156 | Internal conversion |
| 31 | Ga | 38 | 69 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 31 | Ga | 38 | 69 | \(\gamma\) | 1.22? | \({}^{69}\mathrm{Ge}(\beta^+){}^{69}\mathrm{Ga}\) | 157 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 31 | Ga | 39 | 70 | \(\beta^-, K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 31 | Ga | 39 | 70 | \(\gamma\) | 0.0538 | — | 156 | Internal conversion |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 32 | Ge | 40 | 72 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 32 | Ge | 40 | 72 | γ | 0.68 | \(^{72}\mathrm{Ga}\,(\beta^-)\,^{72}\mathrm{Ge}\) | 158 | Internal conversion |
| 32 | Ge | 40 | 72 | γ | 0.84 | » | 158, 159, 160, 161 | γ spectrum |
| 32 | Ge | 40 | 72 | γ | 1.47 | » | 161, 158, 159, 160 | γ and β spectrum |
| 32 | Ge | 40 | 72 | 2.16 | » | 158, 159 | γ and β spectrum | |
| 32 | Ge | 40 | 72 | 2.52 | » | 158, 159 | γ and β spectrum | |
| 32 | Ge | 40 | 72 | 3.04 | » | 158, 159, 160 | γ and β spectrum | |
| 32 | Ge | 40 | 72 | 3.35 | \(^{72}\mathrm{As}\,(\beta^+)\,^{72}\mathrm{Ge}\) | 158, 159, 160, 161; 162 | γ and β spectrum | |
| 32 | Ge | 41 | 73 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 32 | Ge | 41 | 73 | γ | 0.10? | \(^{73}\mathrm{As}\,(K)\,^{73}\mathrm{Ge}\) | 163 | γ spectrum |
| 33 | As | 42 | 75 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 33 | As | 42 | 75 | γ = 0.22; 0.43 | \(^{75}\mathrm{Se}\,(K)\,^{75}\mathrm{As}\) | 164 | γ spectrum | |
| 33 | As | 43 | 76 | \(\beta^-, \beta^+, K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 33 | As | 43 | 76 | \(\beta^-, \beta^+, K\) | 1.00 | \(^{75}\mathrm{As}\,(dp)\,^{76}\mathrm{As}\) | 149 | p spectrum |
| 33 | As | 43 | 76 | \(\beta^-, \beta^+, K\) | 2.13 | » | 149 | p spectrum |
| 34 | Se | 42 | 76 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 34 | Se | 42 | 76 | γ | 0.557 | \(^{76}\mathrm{As}\,(\beta^-)\,^{76}\mathrm{Se}\) | 17, 165, 166 | γ and β spectrum |
| 34 | Se | 42 | 76 | γ | 1.78 | » | 17, 165, 166 | γ and β spectrum |
| 34 | Se | 45, 47 | 79, 81 | \(\beta^-\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 34 | Se | 45, 47 | 79, 81 | γ | 0.099 | — | 134 | Internal conversion |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 35 | Br | 43 | 78 | \(\beta^+\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 35 | Br | 43 | 78 | \(\gamma\) | 0,046 | 156 | Internal conversion | |
| 35 | Br | 43 | 78 | \(\gamma\) | 0,108 | 156 | Internal conversion | |
| 35 | Br | 45 | 80 | \(\beta^-\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 35 | Br | 45 | 80 | \(\gamma\) | 0,037 | 156, 167 | Internal conversion | |
| 35 | Br | 45 | 80 | \(\gamma\) | 0,085 | 156, 167 | Internal conversion | |
| 36 | Kr | 46 | 82 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 36 | Kr | 46 | 82 | \(\gamma\) | 1,35 | \({}^{82}\mathrm{Br}\,(\beta^-)\,{}^{82}\mathrm{Kr}\) | 16 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 36 | Kr | 46 | 82 | \(\gamma\) | 2,14 | » | 16 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 36 | Kr | 46 | 82 | \(\gamma\) | 2,69 | » | 16 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 36 | Kr | 47 | 83 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 36 | Kr | 47 | 83 | \(\gamma\) | 0,029 | X-rays | 45, 134 | Internal conversion |
| 36 | Kr | 47 | 83 | \(\gamma\) | 0,046 | 45, 134 | Internal conversion | |
| 36 | Kr | 47 | 83 | \({}^{82}\mathrm{Kr}\,(n\gamma)\,{}^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\) | 45, 134 | Internal conversion | ||
| 36 | Kr | 47 | 83 | \({}^{80}\mathrm{Se}\,(\alpha n)\,{}^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\) | 63 | Internal conversion | ||
| 36 | Kr | 47 | 83 | \({}^{82}\mathrm{Kr}\,(dp)\,{}^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\) | 63 | Internal conversion | ||
| 36 | Kr | 47 | 83 | \({}^{83}\mathrm{Br}\,(\beta^-)\,{}^{83}\mathrm{Kr}\) | 168 | Internal conversion | ||
| 38 | Sr | 47 | 85 | \(K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 38 | Sr | 47 | 85 | \(\gamma\) | 0,8 | \({}^{85}\mathrm{Rb}\,(pn)\,{}^{85}\mathrm{Sr}\) | 169 | Internal conversion |
| 38 | Sr | 48 | 86 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 38 | Sr | 48 | 86 | \(\gamma\) | 1,10 | \({}^{86}\mathrm{Rb}\,(\beta^-)\,{}^{86}\mathrm{Sr}\) | 170, 171 | \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 38 | Sr | 49 | 87 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 38 | Sr | 49 | 87 | \(\gamma\) | 0.38 | \(^{87}\mathrm{Y}\,(K)\,^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\) \(^{87}\mathrm{Rb}\,(pn)\,^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\) \(^{86}\mathrm{Sr}\,(n\gamma)\,^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\) \(^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\,(nn')\,^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\) \(^{90}\mathrm{Zr}\,(n\alpha)\,^{87}\mathrm{Sr}\) X-rays Electrons |
134, 172, 173 134, 169, 172, 173 134, 172 169, 173 172 169, 173 169, 173 |
Internal conversion Internal conversion Internal conversion Internal conversion Internal conversion Internal conversion Internal conversion |
| 39 | Y | 47 | 86 | \(K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 39 | Y | 47 | 86 | \(\gamma\) | 2 | \(^{86}\mathrm{Sr}\,(pn)\,^{86}\mathrm{Y}\) | 169 | Internal conversion |
| 41 | Nb | 53 | 94 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 41 | Nb | 53 | 94 | \(\gamma\) | \(\sim 0.05\) | \(^{93}\mathrm{Nb}\,(n\gamma)\,^{94}\mathrm{Nb}\) | 174 | Internal conversion |
| 41 | Nb | 54 | 95 | \(\beta^{-}\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 41 | Nb | 54 | 95 | \(\beta^{-}\) | \(\gamma = 0.91\) | \(^{95}\mathrm{Zr}(\beta^{-})\,^{95}\mathrm{Nb}\) | 175, 176 | \(\gamma\) spectrum, \(\beta\gamma\) coincidences |
| 42 | Mo | 50, 51 | 92, 93 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 42 | Mo | 50, 51 | 92, 93 | — | \(\gamma = 1.3 \pm 0.3\) \(\gamma = 2.4 \pm 0.5\) |
\(\mathrm{Tc}\,(\beta^{+})\,\mathrm{Mo}\) | 177 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 52 | 94 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 42 | Mo | 52 | 94 | — | \(\gamma = 0.9 \pm 0.1\) | \(^{94}\mathrm{Tc}\,(\beta^{+})\,^{94}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 178 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | \(\gamma = 0,2\) | \(^{95}\mathrm{Tc}(K)^{95}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 179, 180 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | \(\gamma = 0,2\) | \(^{95}\mathrm{Tc}(\beta^+)^{95}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 180, 181 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | \(\gamma = 0,77\) | \(^{95}\mathrm{Tc}(K)^{95}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 179, 180, 182 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum, internal conversion |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | \(\gamma = 0,77\) | \(^{95}\mathrm{Tc}(\beta^+)^{95}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 181, 183 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | \(\gamma = 0,77\) | \(^{95}\mathrm{Nb}(\beta^-)^{95}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 184 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | \(\gamma = 0,84\) | \(^{95}\mathrm{Tc}(K)^{95}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 179 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | \(\gamma = 0,93\) | — | 182 | Internal conversion |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | 1,04 | \(^{95}\mathrm{Nb}(\beta^-)^{95}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 185 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 53 | 95 | — | 1,04 | \(^{95}\mathrm{Tc}(K)^{95}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 180, 182 | Internal conversion, \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 54 | 96 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 42 | Mo | 54 | 96 | \(\gamma\) | 0,842 | \(^{96}\mathrm{Tc}(\beta^+)^{96}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 181 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 54 | 96 | \(\gamma\) | 0,842 | \(^{96}\mathrm{Tc}(K)^{96}\mathrm{Mo}\) | 182 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 54 | 96 | \(\gamma\) | 1,613 | ” | 182 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 54 | 96 | \(\gamma\) | 2,419 | ” | 182 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 42 | Mo | 54 | 96 | \(\gamma\) | 2,731 | ” | 182 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 43 | Tc | 49,51 | 92,94 | \(\beta^+, K\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 43 | Tc | 49,51 | 92,94 | \(\beta^+, K\) | 0,0334 | \(\mathrm{Mo}(pn)\mathrm{Tc}\) | 186 | Internal conversion |
| 43 | Tc | 49,51 | 92,94 | \(\gamma\) | \(\gamma = 0,380;\) | — | — | — |
| 43 | Tc | 49,51 | 92,94 | \(\gamma\) | 0,873; 1,48; 1,85; 2,74 | \(\mathrm{Mo}(pn)\mathrm{Tc}\) | 186 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
Continuation
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 43 | Tc | 52 | 95 | β⁺ | 0 γ = 0.5 γ = 0.95 |
— \(^{95}\mathrm{Ru}\,(\beta^+)^{95}\mathrm{Tc}\) ” |
— 179 179, 183 |
— γ spectrum γ spectrum |
| 43 | Tc | 54 | 97 | β⁺ | 0 γ = 0.23 |
— \(^{97}\mathrm{Ru}\,(K)^{97}\mathrm{Tc}\) |
— 179 |
— γ spectrum |
| 43 | Tc | 55 | 99 | γ γ |
0 0.129 0.84 |
— \(^{99}\mathrm{Mo}\,(\beta^-)^{99}\mathrm{Tc}\) ” |
— 181 181, 187 |
— γ and β spectrum γ and β spectrum |
| 43 | Tc | ? | ? | γ | 0 0.097 |
— | — 134 |
— Internal conversion |
| 44 | Ru | 54 | 98 | — | 0 γ = 0.9 ± 0.1 |
— \(^{98}\mathrm{Tc}\,(\beta^-)^{98}\mathrm{Ru}\) |
— 178 |
— γ spectrum |
| 45 | Rh | 58 | 103 | — γ γ |
0 0.0631 0.0659 |
— } X-rays |
— 45, 188 |
— Internal conversion |
| 45 | Rh | 58 | 103 | γ | γ = 0.56 | \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}\,(nn')^{103}\mathrm{Rh}\) | 46 | Activity of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}^*\) |
| 45 | Rh | 58 | 103 | γ | 1.26 | \(^{103}\mathrm{Ru}\,(\beta^-)^{103}\mathrm{Rh}\) | 179 | γ spectrum |
| 45 | Rh | 58 | 103 | γ | 1.64 | X-rays | 45 | Resonance yield of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}^*\) |
| 45 | Rh | 58 | 103 | γ | 2.02 | ” | 45 | Resonance yield of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}^*\) |
| 45 | Rh | 58 | 103 | γ | 2.37 | ” | 45 | Resonance yield of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}^*\) |
| 45 | Rh | 58 | 103 | γ | 2.71 | ” | 45 | Resonance yield of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}^*\) |
| 45 | Rh | 58 | 103 | γ | 3.05 | ” | 45 | Resonance yield of \(^{103}\mathrm{Rh}^*\) |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 46 | Pd | 59? | 105? | \(0\) \(\gamma = 0.282;\) \(0.345;\ 0.430;\) \(0.650\ 1.0;\) |
— \(\mathrm{Ag}(K)\mathrm{Pd}\) |
— 148 |
— \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
|
| 46 | Pd | 61 | 106 | — \(\gamma\) |
\(0\) \(0.73\) \(1.24\) \(1.75\) \(2.75?\) |
— \({}^{106}\mathrm{Rh}(\beta^-)\,{}^{106}\mathrm{Pd}\) \({}^{106}\mathrm{Ag}(\beta^+)\,{}^{106}\mathrm{Pd}\) \({}^{106}\mathrm{Rh}(\beta^-)\,{}^{106}\mathrm{Pd}\) \({}^{106}\mathrm{Ag}(\beta^+)\,{}^{106}\mathrm{Pd}\) ” ” |
— 189 148, 190 189 148 148, 190 190 |
— \(\gamma\)-spectrum \(\gamma\)-spectrum \(\gamma\)- and \(\beta\)-spectrum \(\gamma\)-spectrum \(\gamma\)-spectrum \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 47 | Ag | 59 | 106 | \(\beta^+\) \(K\) |
\(0\) \(0.1\) |
— \({}^{106}\mathrm{Cd}(pn)\,{}^{106}\mathrm{Ag}\) |
— 190 |
— |
| 47 | Ag | 60 | 107 | — \(\gamma\) |
\(0\) \(0.0935\) |
— \({}^{107}\mathrm{Cd}(\beta^+)\,{}^{107}\mathrm{Ag}\) \({}^{107}\mathrm{Cd}(K)\,{}^{107}\mathrm{Ag}\) \(X\)-rays \(\mathrm{Pd}(\beta^-)\mathrm{Ag}\) |
— 191, 192, 193, 194 191, 193 45, 134, 195 194 |
— Internal conversion Internal conversion Internal conversion Activity of \({}^{107}\mathrm{Ag}^{*}\) |
| 47 | Ag | 60 | 107 | \(\gamma\) | \(0.95?\) | \({}^{107}\mathrm{Cd}(K)\,{}^{107}\mathrm{Ag}\) | 191, 194 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum |
| 47 | Ag | 62 | 109 | — \(\gamma\) |
\(0\) \(0.0884\) |
— \({}^{109}\mathrm{Cd}(\beta^+)\,{}^{109}\mathrm{Ag}\) |
— 192 |
Internal conversion |
Continuation
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 47 | Ag | 60,62 | 107,109 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 47 | Ag | 60,62 | 107,109 | — | 1.18 | X-rays | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Ag* |
| 47 | Ag | 60,62 | 107,109 | — | 1.59 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Ag* |
| 47 | Ag | 60,62 | 107,109 | — | 1.95 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Ag* |
| 47 | Ag | 60,62 | 107,109 | — | 2.32 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Ag* |
| 47 | Ag | 60,62 | 107,109 | — | 2.76 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Ag* |
| 47 | Ag | 60,62 | 107,109 | — | 3.13 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Ag* |
| 48 | Cd | 59,61 | 107,109 | K | 0 | — | — | — |
| 48 | Cd | 59,61 | 107,109 | γ | 0.0926 | — | 156 | Internal conversion |
| 48 | Cd | 60,62 | 108,110 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 48 | Cd | 60,62 | 108,110 | — | γ = 0.650; 0.925; 1.51 | Ag(β⁻)Cd | 148 | γ spectrum |
| 48 | Cd | 62,65 | 110,113 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 48 | Cd | 62,65 | 110,113 | γ | 0.195 | X-rays | 45, 195 | Internal conversion |
| 48 | Cd | 62,65 | 110,113 | 1.25 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Cd* | |
| 48 | Cd | 62,65 | 110,113 | 1.68 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Cd* | |
| 48 | Cd | 62,65 | 110,113 | 2.08 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Cd* | |
| 48 | Cd | 62,65 | 110,113 | 2.56 | » | 45, 195 | Resonance yield Cd* | |
| 48 | Cd | 63 | 111 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 48 | Cd | 63 | 111 | γ | 0.247 | ¹¹¹In (K)¹¹¹Cd | 196 | Internal conversion |
| 48 | Cd | 63 | 111 | γ | 0.420 | » | 196 | Internal conversion |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Level in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 49 | In | 63 | 112 | \(K,\ \beta^{+},\ \beta^{-}\) \(\gamma\) |
0 0.16 |
— \(^{109}\mathrm{Ag}(\alpha n)^{113}\mathrm{In}\) |
— 196, 197 |
— Internal conversion, \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 49 | In | 66 | 115 | • — \(\gamma\) |
0 0.338 1.12 1.55 2.13 2.63 |
— X-rays Electrons \(^{115}\mathrm{In}(nn')^{115}\mathrm{In}\) \(^{115}\mathrm{In}(pp')^{115}\mathrm{In}\) \(^{115}\mathrm{In}(\alpha\alpha')^{115}\mathrm{In}\) X-rays » » » |
— 45, 198, 199 200 47 48 49 45, 199 45, 199 45 45 |
— Internal conversion Activity of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) Activity of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) Activity of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) Activity of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) Resonance yield of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) Resonance yield of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) Resonance yield of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) Resonance yield of \(^{115}\mathrm{In}^{*}\) |
| 50 | Sn | 66 | 116 | — \(\gamma\) \(\gamma\) \(\gamma\) \(\gamma\) |
0 0.17 0.57 1.0 2.4 |
— \(^{116}\mathrm{In}(\beta^{-})^{116}\mathrm{Sn}\) « « « |
— 16, 148, 201 16, 148, 201 16, 148, 201 16, 148, 201 |
— \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 51 | Sb | 70 | 121 | — \(\gamma\) |
0 0.61 |
— \(^{121}\mathrm{Te}(K)^{121}\mathrm{Sb}\) |
— 202 |
— \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 51 | Sb | 71 | 122 | \(\beta^{-}\) \(\gamma\) |
0 0.140 |
— \(^{121}\mathrm{Sb}(n\gamma)^{122}\mathrm{Sb}\) |
— 203 |
— Internal conversion |
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Level in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 51 | Sb | 73 | 124 | β⁻ | 0 | — | — | — |
| 51 | Sb | 73 | 124 | γ | ∼0.02 | \(^{123}\mathrm{Sb}(n,\gamma)^{124}\mathrm{Sb}\) | 203 | Internal conversion |
| 52 | Te | 69 | 121 | K | 0 | — | — | — |
| 52 | Te | 69 | 121 | γ | 0.225 | — | 202 | γ spectrum* |
| 52 | Te | 69 | 121 | γ | 0.275 | — | 202 | γ spectrum |
| 52 | Te | 70 | 122 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 52 | Te | 70 | 122 | γ | 0.568 | \(^{122}\mathrm{Sb}(\beta^-)^{122}\mathrm{Te}\) | 17, 203, 204, 205 | γ and β spectrum, βγ and γγ coincidences |
| 52 | Te | 70 | 122 | γ | ″ | \(^{122}\mathrm{Sb}(\beta^-)^{122}\mathrm{Te}\) | 206, 207 | Internal conversion |
| 52 | Te | 72 | 124 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 52 | Te | 72 | 124 | γ | 0.605 | \(^{124}\mathrm{Sb}(\beta^-)^{124}\mathrm{Te}\) | 17, 213, 208, 206, 207, 209 | γ and β spectrum, internal conversion |
| 52 | Te | 72 | 124 | γ | 1.32 | ″ | 17, 176, 206, 207, 209, 210 | γ and β spectrum, βγ coincidences |
| 52 | Te | 72 | 124 | γ | 1.97 | ″ | 17, 206, 207, 209, 211 | γ and β spectrum |
| 52 | Te | 72 | 124 | γ | 2.32 | ″ | 17, 203, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210 | γ and β spectrum |
| 52 | Te | 72 | 124 | γ | 2.43 | ″ | 17, 209 | γ and β spectrum |
| 52 | Te | 75 | 127 | β⁻ | 0 | — | — | — |
| 52 | Te | 75 | 127 | γ | 0.086 | — | 134 | Internal conversion |
| $Z$ | Symbol | $N$ | $A$ | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 52 | Te | 77 | 129 | $\beta^{-}$ $\gamma$ |
0 0.102 |
— | — 134 |
— Internal conversion |
| 52 | Te | 79 | 131 | $\beta^{-}$ $\gamma$ |
0 0.177 |
— | — 134 |
— Internal conversion |
| 54 | X | 74 | 128 | — $\gamma$ |
0 0.428 |
— $^{128}\mathrm{J}\,(\beta^{-})\,^{128}\mathrm{X}$ |
— 166 |
— $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectrum |
| 54 | X | 76 | 130 | — $\gamma$ $\gamma$ $\gamma$ $\gamma$ |
0 0.744 1.411 1.948 2.364 |
— $^{130}\mathrm{J}\,(\beta^{-})\,^{130}\mathrm{X}$ » » » |
— 17, 212 17, 212 17, 112 17, 212 |
— $\gamma$ spectrum, $\gamma\gamma$ coincidences $\gamma$ spectrum, $\gamma\gamma$ coincidences $\gamma$ spectrum, $\gamma\gamma$ coincidences $\gamma$ spectrum, $\gamma\gamma$ coincidences |
| 54 | X | 77 | 131 | — $\gamma$ $\gamma$ $\gamma$ |
0 0.080 0.363 0.638 |
— $^{131}\mathrm{J}\,(\beta^{-})\,^{131}\mathrm{X}$ » » |
— 17, 212 17, 100, 212, 213, 214 100, 213, 214 |
— $\gamma$ spectrum, $\gamma\gamma$ coincidences $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectrum $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectrum |
| 55 | Cs | 78 | 133 | — | 0 $\gamma = 0.320$ $\gamma = 0.085$ |
— $^{133}\mathrm{Ba}\,(K)\,^{133}\mathrm{Cs}$ » |
— 215, 216 216 |
— $\gamma$ spectrum, internal conversion Internal conversion |
ENERGY LEVELS OF ATOMIC NUCLEI
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method | Continuation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 55 | Cs | 79 | 134 | β⁻ γ |
0 0.16 |
— \(^{133}\mathrm{Cs}(n\gamma)^{134}\mathrm{Cs}\) |
— 174 |
— Internal conversion |
Continuation |
| 56 | Ba | 77 | 133 | \(K\) γ |
0 0.310 |
— \(^{133}\mathrm{Ba}(n\gamma)^{133}\mathrm{Ba}\) |
— 215, 217 |
— Internal conversion; γ spectrum |
Continuation |
| 56 | Ba | 78 | 334 | — γ γ γ |
0 0.776 ± 0.015 1.396 1.964 |
— \(^{134}\mathrm{Cs}(\beta^-)^{134}\mathrm{Ba}\) » » |
— 218, 219, 222 218, 219, 220 219, 220 |
— γ spectrum γ and β spectra γ and β spectra |
Continuation |
| 56 | Ba | 81 | 137 | — γ |
0 0.663 |
— \(^{137}\mathrm{Cs}(\beta^-)^{137}\mathrm{Ba}\) |
— 221, 222 |
— γ spectrum, coincidence βγ |
Continuation |
| 57 | La | 82 | 139 | — | 0 γ = 0.184; 0.8 |
— \(^{139}\mathrm{Ce}(K)^{139}\mathrm{La}\) |
— 223 |
— γ spectrum |
Continuation |
| 57 | La | 83 | 140 | β⁻ | 0 γ = 0.54 |
— \(^{140}\mathrm{Ba}(\beta^-)^{140}\mathrm{La}\) |
— 184 |
— γ spectrum |
Continuation |
| 58 | Ce | 82 | 140 | — | 0 γ = 0.355; 0.49 γ = 0.87; 1.65 γ = 2.3 |
— \(^{140}\mathrm{La}(\beta^-)^{140}\mathrm{Ce}\) » » |
— 184, 224 176, 184 |
— γ spectrum γ spectrum γ spectrum |
Continuation |
Continuation
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 59 | Pr | 82 | 141 | — | 0 $\gamma=0.137;\ 0.145$ $\gamma=0.2$ |
— $^{141}\mathrm{Ce}\,(\beta^-)\,^{141}\mathrm{Pr}$ » |
— 141 223 |
— Internal conversion $\gamma$ spectrum |
| 59 | Pr | 84 | 143 | $\beta^-$ | 0 $\gamma=0.6$ |
— $^{143}\mathrm{Ce}\,(\beta^-)\,^{143}\mathrm{Pr}$ |
— 223 |
— $\gamma$ spectrum |
| 60 | Nd | 83 | 143 | — | 0 | — $^{143}\mathrm{Pr}\,(\beta^-)\,^{143}\mathrm{Nd}$ |
— 223 |
— |
| 63 | Eu | 90 | 153 | — | 0 $\gamma=0.0695;$ $0.103$ $\gamma=0.61$ |
— $^{153}\mathrm{Sm}\,(\beta^-)\,^{153}\mathrm{Eu}$ » |
— 225, 226 226 |
— Internal conversion $\gamma$ spectrum |
| 64 | Gd | 88 | 152 | — $\gamma$ $\gamma$ $\gamma$ $\gamma$ $\gamma$ $\gamma$ |
0 0.123 0.247 0.533 0.877 1.206 1.649 |
— $^{152}\mathrm{Eu}\,(\beta^-)\,^{152}\mathrm{Gd}$ » » » » » |
— 227 227 227 227 227 227 |
— $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectra $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectra $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectra $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectra $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectra $\gamma$ and $\beta$ spectra |
| 64 | Gd | 90 | 154 | — | 0 $\gamma=0.1224$ |
— $^{154}\mathrm{Eu}\,(\beta^-)\,^{154}\mathrm{Gd}$ |
— 228 |
— $\gamma$ spectrum |
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method | Continuation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 64 | Gd | 90 | 154 | — | \(\gamma = 0.2473;\) \(0.2860;\) \(\gamma = 0.3428;\) \(0.4078;\) \(\gamma = 1.23\) |
\(^{154}\mathrm{Eu}(\beta^-)^{154}\mathrm{Gd}\) » » |
229 228 228 |
\(\gamma\) spectrum \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\gamma\) spectrum |
|
| 65 | Tb | 96 | 161 | \(\beta^-\) | \(0\) \(\gamma = 0.3\) \(\gamma = 1.28\) |
\(^{161}\mathrm{Gd}(\beta^-)^{161}\mathrm{Tb}\) » |
— 230, 231 231 |
— \(\gamma\) spectrum \(\gamma\) spectrum |
|
| 66 | Dy | 94 | 160 | — | \(0\) \(\gamma = 0.0856;\) \(0.1947;\ 0.2132;\) \(0.2980\) \(\gamma = 1.1\) |
\(^{160}\mathrm{Tb}(\beta^-)^{160}\mathrm{Dy}\) » |
— 141, 224 141, 224 |
Internal conversion \(\gamma\) spectrum |
|
| 66 | Dy | 95 | 161 | — | \(0\) \(\gamma = 1.28\) |
\(^{161}\mathrm{Tb}(\beta^-)^{161}\mathrm{Dy}\) | — 233 |
— \(\gamma\) spectrum |
|
| 66 | Dy | 99 | 165 | \(\beta^-\) \(\gamma\) |
\(0\) \(0.18\) |
\(^{164}\mathrm{Dy}(n,\gamma)^{165}\mathrm{Dy}\) | — 232 |
Internal conversion | |
| 69 | Tm | 102 | 171 | — \(\gamma\) \(\gamma\) \(\gamma\) |
\(0\) \(0.113 \pm 0.005\) \(0.410^{+18}_{-10}\) \(0.805 \pm 0.025\) |
\(^{171}\mathrm{Er}(\beta^-)^{171}\mathrm{Tm}\) » » » |
— 233 233 233 |
Internal conversion \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectra \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectra \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectra |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 73 | Ta | 108 | 181 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 73 | Ta | 108 | 181 | \(\gamma\) | 0.133 | \({}^{181}\mathrm{Hf}(\beta^-)\,{}^{181}\mathrm{Ta}\) | 228 | Internal conversion |
| 73 | Ta | 108 | 181 | \(\gamma\) | 0.478 | \({}^{181}\mathrm{Hf}(\beta^-)\,{}^{181}\mathrm{Ta}\) | 228, 234 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 73 | Ta | 108 | 181 | \(\gamma\) | 0.7 | \({}^{181}\mathrm{Hf}(\beta^-)\,{}^{181}\mathrm{Ta}\) | 234 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | 0.0692 | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | 0.1125 | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | 0.2550 | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | 0.3198 | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | 0.3218 | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | 0.3386 | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | 0.5148 | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | 0.6141 | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 74 | W | 108 | 182 | \(\gamma\) | \(\gamma = 0.15;\ 0.22;\ 1.13;\ 1.22\) | \({}^{182}\mathrm{Ta}(\beta^-)\,{}^{182}\mathrm{W}\) | 184, 236 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 110 | 185 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 75 | Re | 110 | 185 | \(\gamma\) | \(\gamma = 0.75\) | \({}^{185}\mathrm{Os}(K)\,{}^{185}\mathrm{Re}\) | 237 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | \(\gamma\) | 0.043 | \({}^{187}\mathrm{Os}(K)\,{}^{187}\mathrm{Re}\) | 238 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | \(\gamma\) | 0.07 | \({}^{187}\mathrm{W}(\beta^-)\,{}^{187}\mathrm{Re}\) | 136 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | \(\gamma\) | 0.21 | \({}^{187}\mathrm{W}(\beta^-)\,{}^{187}\mathrm{Re}\) | 136, 239 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | \(\gamma\) | 0.46 | \({}^{187}\mathrm{W}(\beta^-)\,{}^{187}\mathrm{Re}\) | 239, 240 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | \(\gamma\) | 0.57 | \({}^{187}\mathrm{W}(\beta^-)\,{}^{187}\mathrm{Re}\) | 239, 240 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | \(\gamma\) | 0.69 | \({}^{187}\mathrm{W}(\beta^-)\,{}^{187}\mathrm{Re}\) | 136, 239, 240 | \(\gamma\) and \(\beta\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | \(\gamma\) | 0.79 | \({}^{187}\mathrm{W}(\beta^-)\,{}^{187}\mathrm{Re}\) | 240 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 75 | Re | 112 | 187 | \(\gamma\) | 0.86 | \({}^{187}\mathrm{W}(\beta^-)\,{}^{187}\mathrm{Re}\) | 240 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 76 | Os | 112 | 188 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 76 | Os | 112 | 188 | \(\gamma\) | 0,16 | \(^{188}\mathrm{Re}\,(\beta^-)\,^{188}\mathrm{Os}\) | 185 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 76 | Os | 112 | 188 | \(\gamma\) | 1,84 | » | 185 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 76 | Os | 112 | 188 | \(\gamma\) | \(\gamma=0,19;\ 1,39\) | » | 185 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 77 | Ir | 114 | 191 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 77 | Ir | 114 | 191 | — | \(\gamma=0,22;\ 1,58\) | \(^{191}\mathrm{Os}\,(\beta^-)\,^{191}\mathrm{Ir}\) | 185 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 77 | Ir | 115 | 192 | \(\beta^-\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 77 | Ir | 115 | 192 | \(\gamma\) | 0,060 | \(^{191}\mathrm{Ir}\,(n\gamma)\,^{192}\mathrm{Ir}\) | 241 | Internal conversion |
| 77 | Ir | 116 | 193 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 77 | Ir | 116 | 193 | \(\gamma\) | 0,1291 | \(^{193}\mathrm{Os}\,(\beta^-)\,^{193}\mathrm{Ir}\) | 228, 237 | Internal conversion |
| 78 | Pt | 114 | 192 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 78 | Pt | 114 | 192 | — | \(\gamma=0,6\) | \(^{192}\mathrm{Ir}\,(\beta^-)\,^{192}\mathrm{Pt}\) | 176, 242 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | 0,133 | \(^{194}\mathrm{Ir}\,(\beta^-)\,^{194}\mathrm{Pt}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | 0,294 | » | 176, 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | 0,329 | \(^{194}\mathrm{Au}\,(K)\,^{194}\mathrm{Pt}\) | 243 | Internal conversion |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | 0,586 | \(^{194}\mathrm{Ir}\,(\beta^-)\,^{194}\mathrm{Pt}\) | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | 0,601 | » | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | 0,609 | » | 235 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | 1,81 | \(^{194}\mathrm{Au}\,(K)\,^{194}\mathrm{Pt}\) | 243 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | \(\gamma=2,0\) | » | 243 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
| 78 | Pt | 116 | 194 | \(\gamma\) | \(\gamma=1,43\) | \(^{194}\mathrm{Ir}\,(\beta^-)\,^{194}\mathrm{Pt}\) | 176, 242 | \(\gamma\) spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 78 | Pt | 117 | 195 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 78 | Pt | 117 | 195 | \(\gamma\) | 0.096 | \({}^{195}\mathrm{Au}(K){}^{195}\mathrm{Pt}\) | 243 | Internal conversion |
| 78 | Pt | 117 | 195 | \(\gamma\) | 0.129 | ” | 243 | Internal conversion |
| 78 | Pt | 118 | 196 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 78 | Pt | 118 | 196 | \(\gamma\) | 0.139 | \({}^{196}\mathrm{Au}(K){}^{196}\mathrm{Pt}\) | 243 | Internal conversion |
| 78 | Pt | 118 | 196 | \(\gamma\) | 0.358 | ” | 243 | Internal conversion |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | \(\gamma\) | 0.077 | \({}^{197}\mathrm{Hg}(K){}^{197}\mathrm{Au}\) | 244, 245, 246 | Internal conversion |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | \(\gamma\) | 0.135 | ” | 244, 245, 246 | Internal conversion |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | \(\gamma\) | 0.25? | X-rays | 45, 71 | Internal conversion |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | \(\gamma\) | 0.300 | \({}^{197}\mathrm{Hg}(K){}^{197}\mathrm{Au}\) | 245, 244, 246 | Internal conversion |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | \(\gamma\) | 0.38 | 246 | \(\gamma\)-spectrum | |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | 1.22 | X-rays | 45, 71, 247 | Resonance yield of \({}^{197}\mathrm{Au}^{*}\) | |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | 1.68 | ” | 45, 71, 247 | Resonance yield of \({}^{197}\mathrm{Au}^{*}\) | |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | 2.15 | X-rays | 45, 71, 247 | Resonance yield of \({}^{197}\mathrm{Au}^{*}\) | |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | 2.56 | ” | 45, 71, 247 | Resonance yield of \({}^{197}\mathrm{Au}^{*}\) | |
| 79 | Au | 118 | 197 | 2.97 | ” | 45, 71, 247 | Resonance yield of \({}^{197}\mathrm{Au}^{*}\) | |
| 80 | Hg | 116 | 196 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 80 | Hg | 116 | 196 | \(\gamma\) | 0.173 | \({}^{196}\mathrm{Au}(\beta^{-}){}^{196}\mathrm{Hg}\) | 243 | Internal conversion |
| 80 | Hg | 116 | 196 | \(\gamma\) | 0.334 | ” | 243 | Internal conversion |
| 80 | Hg | 118 | 198 | — | 0 | — | — | — |
| 80 | Hg | 118 | 198 | \(\gamma\) | 0.070? | \({}^{198}\mathrm{Au}(\beta^{-}){}^{198}\mathrm{Hg}\) | 248 | Internal conversion |
Continuation
| Z | Symbol | N | A | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 80 | Hg | 118 | 198 | γ | 0.408 | \(^{198}\mathrm{Au}(\beta^-)\,^{198}\mathrm{Hg}\) | 17, 136, 239, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253 | γ and β spectrum, internal conversion |
| 80 | Hg | 118 | 198 | γ | 0.565 | » | 249, 250, 253 | γ spectrum, internal conversion |
| 80 | Hg | 118 | 198 | γ | 0.773 | » | 249, 250, 253 | γ and β spectrum, internal conversion |
| 80 | Hg | 119 | 199 | — γ |
0 0.18 |
— \(^{199}\mathrm{Au}(\beta^-)\,^{199}\mathrm{Hg}\) |
— 252, 254 |
— γ spectrum, βγ coincidences |
| 81 | ThC″ | 127 | 208 | β− | 0 0.040 |
— \(\mathrm{ThC}(\alpha)\mathrm{ThC}^{\prime\prime}\) |
— 18 |
— α and γ spectrum |
| 81 | RaC″ | 129 | 210 | β− | 0 0.062 |
— \(\mathrm{RaC}(\alpha)\mathrm{RaC}^{\prime\prime}\) |
— 18 |
— α and γ spectrum |
| 83 | RaE | 127 | 210 | β− | 0 0.0472 |
— \(\mathrm{RaD}(\beta^-)\mathrm{RaE}\) |
— 18 |
— β and γ spectrum |
| 83 | AcC | 128 | 211 | β−, α | 0 0.404 0.487 0.764 0.829 |
— \(^{211}\mathrm{AcB}(\beta^-)\,^{211}\mathrm{AcC}\) » » » |
— 255 255 255 255 |
— γ and β spectrum γ and β spectrum γ and β spectrum γ and β spectrum |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 83 | ThC | 129 | 212 | \(\beta^-, \alpha\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 83 | ThC | 129 | 212 | \(\beta^-, \alpha\) | 0,238 | ThB \((\beta^-)\) ThC | 18 | Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 83 | RaC | 131 | 214 | \(\beta^-, \alpha\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 83 | RaC | 131 | 214 | \(\beta^-, \alpha\) | 0,0529 | RaB \((\beta^-)\) RaC | 18 | Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | ThC′ | 128 | 212 | \(\alpha\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 84 | ThC′ | 128 | 212 | \(\gamma\) | 0,69 | \(^{212}\mathrm{ThC'}(\alpha){}^{208}\mathrm{ThD}\) | 15 | Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | ThC′ | 128 | 212 | \(\gamma\) | 0,84 | » | » | Spectrum \(\alpha\), \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | ThC′ | 128 | 212 | \(\gamma\) | 1,60 | » | » | Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | ThC′ | 128 | 212 | \(\gamma\) | 1,78 | » | » | Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | ThC′ | 128 | 212 | \(\gamma\) | 2,20 | » | » | Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\alpha\) | 0 | — | — | — |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 0,426 | \(^{214}\mathrm{RaC}(\beta^-){}^{214}\mathrm{RaC'}\) | 256 | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 0,608 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 0,766 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | 1,283 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) | |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | 1,412 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) | |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 1,663 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 1,761 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | 1,844 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) | |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | 2,015 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) | |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 2,138 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 2,198 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | 2,268 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) | |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | 2,439 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) | |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | 2,513 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) | |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 2,697 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
| 84 | RaC′ | 130 | 214 | \(\gamma\) | 2,880 | » | » | Spectrum \(\gamma\) |
Continuation
| \(Z\) | Symbol | \(N\) | \(A\) | Activity | Levels in MeV | Reaction | Literature | Method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 86 | Rn | 136 | 222 | \(\alpha\) | 0 0.184 |
— \(^{226}\mathrm{Ra}(\alpha)\,^{222}\mathrm{Rn}\) |
— 18 |
— Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 88 | ThX | 133 | 224 | \(\alpha\) | 0 0.086 |
— \(^{228}\mathrm{RdTh}(\alpha)\,^{224}\mathrm{ThX}\) |
— 18 |
— Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 90 | RdTh | 138 | 228 | \(\alpha\) | 0 0.058 |
— \(^{228}\mathrm{MTh}\,2(\beta^-)\,^{228}\mathrm{RdTh}\) |
— 18 |
— Spectrum \(\alpha\) and \(\gamma\) |
| 91 | UZ UX\(_2\) |
143 143 |
234 234 |
\(\beta^-\) \(\gamma,\ \beta^-\) |
0 0.394 |
— \(^{234}\mathrm{UX}_2(\beta^-)\,^{234}\mathrm{UII}\) |
— 257 |
— Spectrum \(\beta\) |
| 91 | UX\(_2\) | 143 | 234 | \(\gamma,\ \beta^-\) | 0 0.093 |
\(^{234}\mathrm{UX}_1(\beta^-)\,^{234}\mathrm{UX}_2\) » |
— 258 |
— Spectrum \(\beta\) |
| 92 | UII | 142 | 234 | \(\alpha\) | 0 0.78 0.82 1.50 |
— \(^{234}\mathrm{UX}_2(\beta^-)\,^{234}\mathrm{UII}\) » » |
— 257 257 257 |
— Spectrum \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) Spectrum \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) Spectrum \(\beta\) and \(\gamma\) |
Therefore, the establishment of general regularities in the distribution of levels in connection with the dynamics of the nucleus is still a scarcely rewarding problem; its full solution, apparently, will become possible only after rich experimental material has been accumulated, covering a large number of nuclei. In solving this problem, the study of the fine structure of nuclear levels and of the probabilities of quantum transitions in the nucleus should play an important role.
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