Sixth International Colloquium on Spectroscopy in Amsterdam

In the spring of 1956, together with several fellow spectroscopists, I had the opportunity to visit a number of spectroscopic laboratories in Holland and the Federal Republic of Germany and to take part in the work of the Sixth International Colloquium on Spectroscopy, which was held in Amsterdam from May 14 to 19. Meetings with a large number of foreign spectroscopists and visits, after a long interval, to Western European laboratories—now that work in spectroscopy in the USSR has developed greatly—were of considerable interest, and I should like to dwell on some impressions and conclusions.

After the war, international colloquia on spectroscopy became a form of regular meetings among spectroscopists. They take place once every two years, convening in different countries. The preceding, Fifth Colloquium was held in 1954 in Gmunden (Austria); the Sixth Colloquium took place in Amsterdam (Holland) in 1956; the next, Seventh, is scheduled for 1958 in Liège (Belgium). They bring together physicist-spectroscopists, physical chemists who make extensive use of spectrochemical methods of investigation, and spectroscopists who employ methods of spectral analysis for industrial applications. From year to year these colloquia are becoming

more and more numerous. The VI International Colloquium in Amsterdam brought together 580 participants from approximately 30 countries. The most numerous was the German delegation, which numbered about 170 persons (of whom about 150 were from the FRG); in second place were the Dutch (about 140 persons), followed by the French (about 75 persons), the English (about 50 persons); approximately 25 persons each were included in the delegations of Belgium, Italy, and Switzerland; more than ten participants were included in the delegations of the USA, Sweden, and Czechoslovakia; the remaining countries were represented by a smaller number of participants. The USSR delegation consisted of five persons: Academician G. S. Landsberg and A. N. Terenin, Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, S. E. Frisch, Professor S. L. Mandelstam, and N. N. Sobolev. The small size of the Soviet delegation, in comparison with the delegations of other countries, in no way reflects the relation in the scale and significance of work on spectroscopy being carried out in the USSR and in those countries.

It should be noted that, when these international colloquia were first conceived, they were intended for the discussion of questions of emission spectroscopy. In parallel, there arose the Society for Molecular Spectroscopy under the Physical Chemistry Section of IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry), which convenes international meetings on molecular spectroscopy, but pays little attention to its analytical applications. Therefore, questions of absorption, primarily molecular, spectroscopy gradually began to occupy a certain place in the program of the colloquia on spectroscopy. The unsatisfactory nature of the situation that had developed is obvious. And the president of the VI Colloquium, Professor Fons Tongeren, in his opening address drew attention to the need to seek some radical solution. In connection with this, a questionnaire was circulated among the participants of the Colloquium, the responses to which are to clarify the wishes of those present concerning the organization of spectroscopic meetings in the future.

At the Colloquium about 100 reports were heard, distributed among a number of sections, with two and even three sections usually meeting simultaneously. The reports may be grouped under the following headings: general questions of spectral radiation; radiation in an arc; radiation in a spark; flame photometry; absorption in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum; infrared absorption and combinational scattering of light; questions of methods and apparatus.

In accordance with what has been said above, reports relating to questions of molecular spectroscopy constituted no more than one quarter of all the reports presented. In particular, there were no reports at all on microwave spectroscopy or on the closely related problems of magnetic resonance, although it was precisely in Holland, in Gorter’s work, that this direction first arose. It is known that abroad much attention is given to questions of low-frequency molecular spectroscopy, as well as to questions of molecular spectroscopy in general, and the absence of corresponding reports at the VI Colloquium is the result of the organizational uncertainty noted above.

Speaking of the organization of the colloquium, which began several months before its opening, one should mention the great efficiency of the Organizing Committee. All informational notices, down to the hotel address, with an appended plan of Amsterdam, were received by all participants of the colloquium even before their departure. Each speaker was obliged to submit in good time a résumé of his report in one of three languages: French, German, or English. The Organizing Committee provided translations of the résumé into all three languages, and each participant received, in accordance with his request, a set of such résumés in the language he desired, also before departure for the colloquium. Upon arrival in Amster-

all participants were supplied with special cards granting the right to use all forms of city transport free of charge. Detailed programs of the sessions, the exhibition plan for instruments, and all other informational materials made the participants’ work very convenient and fruitful.

In keeping with the variety of questions touched upon at the colloquium, five introductory reports were organized, which, on the instructions of the Organizing Committee, were read by prominent specialists from various countries. One hour was allotted for each of these introductory reports, whereas sectional reports were to be delivered within 25 minutes (15 minutes for the report, 10 minutes for questions and discussion). The introductory reports were as follows: 1) flame photometry; 2) emission in the spark; 3) emission in the arc; 4) infrared absorption; 5) ultraviolet absorption.

The first report, on flame photometry, was given by a young physicist of Utrecht University (Holland), Alkemade, whose doctoral dissertation was devoted to this range of questions. The report gave a classification of problems associated with flame photometry, and discussed the influence of various factors (composition of the gas mixture, flame temperature, burner dimensions, the effect of blown-in air, etc.) on the absolute brightness of emitted lines of different elements, on the ratio of the intensity of lines to the continuous background, and on the shape of the calibration curves (dependence of intensity on concentration), as well as the influence of extraneous cations and anions on the intensity of the lines studied.

The report on emission in the spark was given by Professor Kaiser, director of the Institute of Electrochemistry and Applied Spectroscopy in Dortmund (FRG), a well-known researcher on the theory and practice of spectral analysis. In Kaiser’s report the principal phenomena in the spark discharge were considered: the entry of material from the electrodes (its relation to the magnitude of the charge passing through), the excitation of spectral lines in the positive column and in the torches emitted by the electrodes; the phenomenon of “spark discharges,” i.e., the dependence of the line intensity on the time of spark treatment, in connection with the dimensions of the area being sparked, the material and temperature of the electrodes, etc., that is, a series of questions essential for the practice of spectral analysis; at the same time, an attempt was made to give some physical explanation of the observed phenomena.

Emission in the arc was considered in the report of Professor Lochte-Holtgreven (Kiel, FRG), who has been engaged with these problems for many years. In Lochte’s report questions were examined concerning the dependence of the intensity of lines and of the continuous background of the arc on external conditions, including the properties of the gas composing the atmosphere. Special attention was paid to questions of stabilizing the intensity of the arc, both by maintaining constant current and voltage and, especially, by means of various mechanical and thermal devices that make it possible to ensure good performance, as well as to obtain an arc with a high (up to 20,000°) column temperature.

The introductory report on infrared spectroscopy was given by the well-known scientist, Professor of the Sorbonne J. Lecomte (Paris, France), one of the most active researchers in the infrared field, in which he has been working for about 30 years. Lecomte’s report was a good, very popular survey of progress in the apparatus and methods of studying infrared spectra over the past 15 years. The report covered all aspects of this question, reporting, for example, interesting data on the quantitative growth of research in infrared spectroscopy: in 1939 there were about 30 regularly operating infrared installations worldwide; at present their number exceeds 2000.

However, the report did not present any new, or little-known to spectroscopists, information. It did not touch upon any fundamental questions connected with the measurement of the parameters of infrared absorption, in particular the highly topical question of the influence of the apparatus on the results recorded. It seems to me that, by its nature, it was of little relevance to an international meeting of spectroscopists: for physicists it communicated nothing new; for chemists and practical workers it was overloaded with our technical details, but left aside the general questions of infrared spectroscopy.

From this point of view, the introductory report on ultraviolet absorption spectra, delivered by Miss Roe, head of the spectroscopy department of the Research Institute of England for the Study of Cancer, was more successful. The report gave a picture of the physical interpretation of ultraviolet absorption spectra, which was probably useful for the physical chemists who made up a considerable part of the members of the Colloquium, and, in addition, on rich factual material illustrated important questions concerning the effect of chemical and physical factors (in particular, the action of intermolecular forces) on the results of investigations of ultraviolet absorption spectra.

However, all these introductory reports, by their nature, were rather reports popularizing the problems, and not reports capable of orienting the discussion toward the most important problems of spectroscopy; and in fact they did not play such a role, although precisely such a conception had been held by the organizers of the Colloquium.

The question of the purpose of such introductory reports at scientific congresses is a rather controversial one. It seems to me personally that the most appropriate arrangement is precisely that of reports which can orient the discussion. But this imposes very high demands not only on the speaker, but also on the participants in the meeting, and is probably most suitable for narrower and more specialized meetings, where the reports must be subordinated to some general problem. At broad and crowded meetings, where each speaker presents his own, sometimes very narrowly focused work, such a method is scarcely applicable. The usefulness of “popularizing” reports, which facilitate for the participants the discussion of individual works from the corresponding fields, is determined by the composition and level of the participants and seems to me doubtful for serious international meetings.

The reports in the sessions, which kept well within the allotted time limit (25 minutes, including discussion), dealt with particular questions of spectroscopy, mainly with the use of spectroscopy in solving various chemical and practical problems. In this respect the reports of the representatives of the Soviet delegation stood at a higher level and concerned, as a rule, more general and more theoretically interesting problems.

The report of N. N. Sobolev, who described the results of interferometric measurements of the width and shape of lines in an arc discharge and in a flame, was connected with the theoretical interpretation of the question of line broadening, which in recent times has been subjected to fruitful consideration in the works of Soviet researchers (S. L. Mandelstam and N. N. Sobolev and, especially, I. I. Sobel’man). The report of S. L. Mandelstam gave an interesting picture of the mechanism of development of a spark discharge, based on a series of investigations by the author and his collaborators, in which all the most important parameters of the discharge were studied experimentally and a new theory of the spark discharge was developed. The report of S. E. Frish on the topic “The Role of Stepwise Transitions in the Excitation of Spectral Lines” also related to general problems of spectroscopy and reported new, interesting experimental investigations of the excitation functions of atoms, whose complex forms receive a complete

explanation in phenomena of stepwise transitions. The report by A. N. Terenin communicated new data on the influence of organic vapors on the infrared absorption spectra of phthalocyanines with various central metal atoms, making it possible to draw a conclusion about the important role of the central atom. The report by G. S. Landsberg, “The Influence of Experimental Conditions on the Observed Intensity of Lines in Vibrational Spectra,” presenting the results of work by the Optics Laboratory of the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences in this field, was devoted to the discussion of a fundamental question of molecular spectroscopy; although the reviews of the colloquium emphasized the desirability of making detailed consideration of the basic topic the work of the section on vibrational spectra, there were, however, no other reports on this problem.

The majority of the sectional reports were of a much more specialized character and were, for the most part, devoted to the experimental solution of various problems without any in-depth theoretical interpretation. Many communications were of undoubted interest and were characterized by good experimental technique. These include the report by Sargent and Bulewicz (Cambridge, England), “Spectroscopic Measurements of the Concentration of Free Radicals in a Hydrogen Flame,” devoted to the solution of an interesting and difficult question of spectroscopy; the report by Delvaux (Lille, France), in which the problem of chemical equilibrium in systems of the type \(X_{2}Hg + Y_{2}Hg \rightleftarrows 2XHgY\) was solved in a rational way with the aid of spectra of combination scattering; the report by Chapman (Port Sunlight, England), “Study of Polymorphism by Means of Infrared Spectroscopy,” where, on considerable material relating to ether salts, glycerides, and alcohols with long chains, the fruitfulness of the method was shown, as well as even the possibility of following spectroscopically the processes of formation of polymorphic forms; the report by Schmidt (Freiburg, FRG), “Integral Coefficients of Infrared Absorption of Certain Substituted Benzenes,” in which the systematic influence of substituents on the intensity of absorption bands was demonstrated and a preliminary qualitative interpretation of the phenomenon was given from the standpoint of ideas about the polarization of molecular groups; in this study one should note the good spectroscopic technique characterizing the laboratory of Prof. Mecke, where this work was carried out; the report by Meda (Milan, Italy), who reported on a purely empirical spectroscopic method for solving the problem, very difficult for chemists, of the quantitative analysis of mixtures of di- and tri-ethers and their amino derivatives; the report by La-Lau (Amsterdam, Holland), in which a practical method was developed for spectroscopic control, by infrared absorption spectra, of certain complex salts of sulfo-substituted paraffins; the report by Kunst and Boga (Amsterdam, Holland), “Identification and Quantitative Determination of Tertiary Butyl Groups in Hydrocarbons by Means of Infrared Absorption and Combination Scattering Spectra,” where the features of the spectra were investigated and, by comparing both methods, the superiority of the scattering method for the given case was established. The last two works were carried out in the laboratory of the petroleum concern “Shell” and characterize the use of methods of molecular spectroscopy in industry. A number of other reports considered questions of the successful practical application of emission spectral analysis, for example in the report by Geteman and Rysmann (Munich, FRG), where spectral analysis of small impurities in coals for spectral analysis was reported. It should be noted, however, that in the very important question for new technology of analysis in the region of very small concentrations (down to \(10^{-5}\)%), the most effective, apparently, is the so-called “evaporation technique,” developed in our country at the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences (laboratory of S. L. Mandelstam).

A number of interesting reports dealt with questions of research methodology and with apparatus questions. Such, for example, were the reports by Coleman and Smith (Utrecht, Holland), “Photoelectric measurements of flame temperatures by the reversal method”; the report by Vallee (Boston, USA), “The cyanogen flame as a light source for spectrochemical analysis”; the report by Dieke (Baltimore, USA), “On the study of light sources by means of time scanning”; the report by Roberts (Worcestershire, USA), “On cuvettes for investigating infrared absorption in solid specimens at very low temperatures”—work undertaken, apparently, in connection with spectrographic investigations of minute impurities in semiconductors, but also of general methodological interest.

Reports on new spectral apparatus were devoted to the paper by Heidinger (Zurich, Switzerland), “On the design of a new infrared spectrophotometer of increased luminosity and resolving power,” developed by the well-known firm Perkin and Elmer (the report of the Swiss branch of the firm), which is being marketed under the designation PE No. 13; reports on photoelectric apparatus for spectral analysis, for example the report by Hasler (ARL firm, Glendale, USA).

The participants in the Colloquium could become acquainted with questions of modern spectral apparatus not only from the reports, but also at a special exhibition organized in connection with the Colloquium, in which about 40 of the largest firms from various countries took part. Careful acquaintance with this exhibition showed that foreign spectral instrument-making stands at a high level and is being continuously improved. Most of the instruments exhibited were distinguished by expediency and thoughtfulness of overall design, accuracy of construction, and excellent external finish. There are very interesting designs of spectrographs, spark generators, spectroprojectors, microphotometers, and other instruments, far surpassing Soviet models or even altogether absent in our country. This applies especially to automated infrared apparatus and to photoelectric apparatus for spectral analysis. Such apparatus is now manufactured by Belgian, French, Swiss, German, Italian, Dutch, English, and American firms. Of great interest to our industry are infrared spectrophotometers (Perkin-Elmer, USA; Hilger, England; Leitz, FRG, and Zeiss (Ernst Abbe), GDR); the quantometer of the ARL firm (USA) and its Swiss branch; a photoelectric attachment to the Hilger medium spectrograph; a spectrograph with a diffraction grating designed by Hilger; instruments of the firm “Ottica Milano” (Italy) and of the French firm “Société Général d’Optique.”

Participation in the Colloquium and conversations with foreign scientists made it possible for us to ascertain the existence abroad of rich information materials available to individual laboratories and organizations.

In one of the reports, given by a representative of the French organization for the development of spectroscopic methods GAMS (Groupement pour l’Avancement des Méthodes Spectroscopiques), the question was raised of unifying data relating to infrared absorption spectra of organic compounds that are available to many investigators. Considering this a significant undertaking requiring great expenditures and effort, the speaker raised the question of organizing it on an international scale. I have always attached great importance to the possibility of wide use of the corresponding spectroscopic materials, the acquisition of which in a single laboratory is extremely difficult because of the complexity of synthesizing or purifying most organic compounds. Therefore I gathered, during one of the intervals between sessions, a meeting of the leading specialists on these questions. About 20 persons took part in the meeting: English—

cans, Dutch, French, Americans, Germans (FRG and GDR), and others. At this meeting I raised the question of the need not only for the simple collection of information, but for work, according to a definite plan, on the unification of the available materials, in order to make them comparable with one another, eliminate possible errors and, as far as possible, take into account the influence of the apparatus and measurement conditions on the results obtained. Those present agreed on the importance of this work, and Prof. Mecke (Freiburg, FRG) promised, at my request, to put this question before the JCS [Joint Comission Spectroscopic—joint (mixed) commission on spectroscopy]—an international organization whose bureau is to meet in the autumn of the current year in Ohio (USA). Until measures are adopted on an international scale, Prof. Mecke, who himself possesses rather extensive materials on infrared absorption spectra, expressed his readiness to unite the efforts of the German scientists working in the FRG and GDR. Thus, some success was achieved.

This discussion, as well as acquaintance with the state of affairs in a number of laboratories, showed me that GAMS (France) has data relating to several thousand hydrocarbons (Prof. Mecke (FRG)—3000–4000; Prof. Kaiser (FRG)—about 800; the Shell laboratory (Holland)—several hundreds; American laboratories—over 10,000, etc.). Of course, many of the substances have been studied repeatedly in different laboratories; the chemical or spectrochemical value of many data may prove to be insufficient, but nevertheless it is probable that data on approximately 15,000–20,000 substances could, to one degree or another, be used in the work of spectroscopists if they were properly processed and published. But even now foreign spectroscopists exchange these materials quite widely, to which we practically have no access. The situation can be improved to a considerable extent as our international ties develop.

The program of the work of the VI Colloquium included a visit by its participants to one of two large industrial scientific laboratories located in Amsterdam: the Philips firm (radio apparatus, electronics, semiconductor devices) and the Shell concern (petroleum-product refining).

We had the opportunity to visit the laboratories of the Shell concern, and we were shown not only the spectroscopic laboratories, but also the chemical and technological ones. At the Shell enterprises concentrated in Amsterdam (this oil firm, Royal Dutch Shell Compagnie, has divisions and branches in many countries), refining of petroleum products takes place, and the numerous laboratories are, as it were, the brain of the whole enterprise. Closest of all to production are, of course, the technological and chemical laboratories; the physical ones in most cases receive tasks from the former, although there are not infrequent cases of direct links between the physical laboratories and production.

The spectroscopic laboratories of the concern carry out all types of spectroscopic investigations both in the field of atomic and molecular spectroscopy (ultraviolet and infrared absorption, combination scattering), as well as in the field of mass spectrography (for the analysis of gaseous mixtures). The equipment is rich and first-class; one encounters the best of the existing models, which cannot be found in our research institutes. The number of spectral apparatuses is also very considerable, and the entire organization of the work leaves nothing to be desired. It is sufficient to say that the Shell laboratories have at their disposal a high-class electronic computing machine (English), which greatly simplifies many complex calculations in the processing of spectral data. It should be noted that in the USSR the use of electronic computing machines for carrying out calculations, extremely important both in ...

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for solving both practical and purely scientific problems, encounters great difficulties because of the insufficient number of operating machines. The Computing Center of the Academy of Sciences has limited capabilities and is overloaded with important and urgent tasks. Normal scientific work is almost deprived of this most valuable auxiliary tool, which not only immeasurably accelerates the performance of many calculations, but without which a number of important problems cannot be posed. It is necessary to achieve an improvement in this situation in the very near future, both by significantly expanding the capabilities of the Computing Center of the Academy of Sciences and by installing our own electronic computing machines in some of the Academy’s large institutes that most need them.

Certain misunderstandings connected with the organization of excursions deserve some mention. The number of participants in each excursion was limited, and although some members of the Soviet delegation had promptly declared their wish to visit the Philips laboratory, they were not put on the corresponding list. This situation could not be changed, despite efforts on the part of the members of the Organizing Committee; apparently, the management of the firm, which approved the lists, preferred not to have us among its visitors. It is unlikely that any considerations of “safeguarding secrets” played a role here, for visits by entire excursions, with guides from the firm, are always arranged so as to show mainly generally known things. If the decision of the Philips management was dictated by their political antipathies, then it should be emphasized that this was the only manifestation of “anti-Soviet tendencies.” On the contrary, throughout the entire Colloquium, in the organization of all meetings, banquets, and receptions, during the visit to Shell, and outside this firm, we encountered the most attentive attitude, whose sincerity there was no reason to doubt. The same was true on the part of individual Dutch scientists (for example, Prof. Ketelaar, Prof. Gerding, and others), who invited us to their homes and received us in the warmest manner. These receptions (at home) also took place in the company of scientists from other countries, as well as in the form of special invitations to our Soviet group. In particular, Professor von Tongeren, the head of the Colloquium, insisted that after the conclusion of the Colloquium’s work we visit him at his country house (he lives in Velsen, 40 km from Amsterdam), and he himself came to Amsterdam to take us to his home. Just as Secretary Kolthoff, a young scientist Frese, invited us to visit him in his small apartment in one of the new quarters of Amsterdam. These meetings, wholly unofficial, characterized better than any speeches or receptions the friendly and well-disposed attitude of the Dutch scientists. The same friendliness and attention surrounded us when we visited Dutch laboratories. Having stayed for four days after the closing of the Colloquium, we expressed a desire to visit the largest Dutch laboratories both in Amsterdam and in other cities, and received so many invitations that we could not make use of them all.

In Amsterdam we visited the Van ’t Hoff Laboratory, headed by Ketelaar, and the well-known Zeeman Laboratory, located in a new building constructed while P. Zeeman was still alive. We visited Utrecht, the Physics Institute of the university, founded by Ornstein and now headed by Alkemade and Smit, and also visited the well-known astrophysical observatory headed by Prof. Minnaert, where systematic work is being conducted on the compilation of an atlas of the solar spectrum. Finally, in Delft we visited the Physics Institute of the Higher Technical School, where, alongside spectroscopic investigations (Prof. Prins), work in nuclear physics has begun to develop, and the plant for physical apparatus of the well-known firm “Kipp and Sons.” The impressions formed from the visit

evaluation of the best Dutch spectroscopic laboratories strengthened the impressions that we had formed while taking part in the work of the Colloquium. What draws attention is the good organization of the work, the convenient and spacious working premises not only in the special research institute named after P. Zeeman, but also in the university laboratories, and the good and varied modern apparatus. The experimental working technique established by such masters of physical experiment as Zeeman and Ornstein stands high and is being improved in accordance with the latest technical achievements. But no broad guiding theoretical ideas are apparent in the work of these laboratories, and their work consists chiefly in the further development of precise classical experiments on the systematics of spectra, their fine structure, and the magnetic splitting of spectra of elements that have not yet been studied. Of all the works I saw, the investigations of Prof. Ketelaar and his students (the laboratory of J. van ’t Hoff, Amsterdam) on induced infrared spectra in mixtures of gases at elevated pressure and in mixtures of liquids seem to me the most original and new. In these investigations the appearance was discovered of new infrared absorption bands, consisting of combination and difference tones of the fundamental frequencies belonging to molecules of two different substances. The compound tones of any one molecule, repeatedly observed previously, are readily explained by nonlinear phenomena in the molecule; the phenomenon already observed by Ketelaar apparently indicates the existence of an interaction between different molecules capable of modulating the proper frequency of one of them by the frequency proper to the other. Such an interaction is new and unexpected.

I cannot dwell on my general impressions of Holland. I shall say only that Holland attracts attention by its high standard of living, although it is, of course, considerably lower than that observed in 1930, during my first visit to this country, when Holland was extensively exploiting its colonies. Amsterdam is striking for its exceptionally intense street traffic, due in part to the tourist season. Along its rather narrow streets there move at great speed an enormous number of automobiles, motorcycles, and bicycles, while at the same time a large number of trams and buses are running about. Bicycles have always been very widespread in Holland, whose flat terrain made them a convenient form of both urban and interurban transport (between neighboring towns close to one another). But it is surprising that the abundance of automobiles has not forced bicycles even out of the streets of a town such as Amsterdam, where there are 400,000 bicycles for a million inhabitants!

The second thing that struck me in Amsterdam was the enormous new construction of residential houses in new quarters arising on the outskirts. These houses contain small (two- or three-room), inexpensive apartments occupied by workers and office employees. We saw one of these apartments while visiting Frese, as I mentioned above.

The other Dutch cities we visited—The Hague, Utrecht, Delft, and Haarlem—are, of course, not as lively as Amsterdam, but they are also signs of prosperity.

The exceptional impression made by Dutch painting of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was especially strengthened by the exhibition organized this year in Amsterdam on the occasion of the 350th anniversary of Rembrandt’s birth; at it, in addition to Dutch canvases by Rembrandt, there were gathered his paintings sent from various countries, including six masterpieces from among those kept in our Hermitage.

After the conclusion of our work in Holland, Prof. S. L. Mandelstam and I went to Dortmund (Federal Republic of Germany) at the invi—

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At the invitation of the director of the State Institute for Materials Testing, Prof. Bischoff, and the director of the Institute of Spectrochemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, Prof. Kaiser, the purpose of the trip was to become acquainted with work in electrospectroscopy being carried out at these institutes, and also to take part in a special small conference on questions of spectral analysis, which it was proposed to convene in connection with our arrival.

Dortmund is one of the large cities of the Ruhr region, with about 600,000 inhabitants; of these, almost half are directly connected with large factories, for which the State Institute for Materials Testing is the official controller of production. For this reason the city of Dortmund participates financially in the organization and maintenance of the Institute for Materials Testing, and the question of our invitation was agreed upon with the municipal authorities. We, to a certain extent, were regarded as guests of the city of Dortmund, whose representative took part in our reception and showed great solicitude. Our arrival also found a very sympathetic response in the press. News of our arrival, stay, tour of the institutes, and presentation of papers was noted by reports and photographs in a number of Dortmund and Westphalian regional newspapers, clippings from which were sent to us at farewell by the representative of the city together with materials relating to the cultural activity of the municipal administration.

Acquaintance with the Institute of Applied Spectroscopy was of great interest. The institute was organized in 1952 with funds from heavy industry and the state and is housed in a special building constructed in 1953. At the head of the institute is a major scholar in the field of spectral analysis, Professor Kaiser; the institute’s staff numbers about 40 people. The tasks of the institute include scientific research in the field of spectral analysis, the development of certain chemical and physicochemical methods of analysis, and the development of individual complex problems connected with the application of spectral analysis in industry. The institute is well equipped and has good premises, although, according to Prof. Kaiser, the present provision of space—20 m² per person, below the standard of 25 m²—is insufficient, and therefore, as well as in connection with the anticipated increase in the institute’s staff, preparations are under way for the construction of a new building.

Among the works in the field of atomic spectral analysis, undoubted interest is presented by studies on the effect of an electric-spark discharge on electrodes and on the light source using photoelectric apparatus. (Studies of these same questions are being carried out in the spectral laboratory of the Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences, and apparently at a higher physical level.) Among the equipment of interest are French and English photoelectric instruments, as well as a number of auxiliary devices developed at the institute: an apparatus for the rapid drying of plates, a device for developing plates, and others.

In the area of molecular spectroscopy the institute has a two-beam automatic spectrophotometer for recording spectra of infrared absorption by Leitz (FRG) and a Hilger (England) spectrograph, making it possible to photograph combination-scattering spectra and to record them with the aid of an electronic recording device. Both installations are quite modern and give good results. The first installation is used to obtain systematic material on infrared absorption spectra recorded on punched cards, with the aim of facilitating group and qualitative analysis of hydrocarbons. About 800 such cards have already been obtained, and they are undoubtedly valuable material, although they do not make it possible to carry out quantitative analysis, since they record the percentage transmission and not the extinction coefficient.

The second installation for recording combination-scattering spectra was obtained recently, and at present its suitability for recording the integral intensities of combination-scattering lines is being studied. In the future, apparently, it will be adapted for obtaining a systematic material analogous to that obtained for infrared absorption spectra. It seems that no serious methodological work of a fundamental nature, either in atomic or in molecular spectral analysis, is being carried out at the Institute.

The Institute for Materials Testing is also a well-equipped institution, located in an extensive, specially built and specially equipped building and carrying out tests of a very wide variety of materials. A large amount of testing, as well as some research work, is conducted by the spectral-analysis laboratory headed by Dr. Nordmeyer, which makes extensive use of Hilger’s photoelectric apparatus. The laboratory is also preparing to expand work in molecular spectroscopy; the equipment for this has already been ordered but has not yet been received.

During our stay a small conference was arranged, devoted to our reports (the first half of the day) and to a detailed discussion of certain questions of spectroscopy and spectral analysis (the second half of the day).

About 80 people attended the conference—workers of the metallurgical and chemical industries of the Ruhr basin, as well as employees of scientific institutes. Of this number, about 40 came specially to Dortmund for this meeting from various cities and regions, including well-known spectroscopists.

G. S. Landsberg’s report was devoted to the consideration of certain fundamental questions concerning the recording of the intensities of spectra of combination scattering of light, and to the presentation of a method of spectral analysis of molecular composition of petroleum products based on such determinations of intensity. The reported results rest on many years of work by the staff of the Optics Laboratory of the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences and the laboratory of catalytic cracking of the Institute of Organic Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, published in our journals and in a special monograph.

S. L. Mandelstam’s report was devoted to spectral-analytical questions, the evaporation method developed by S. L. Mandelstam jointly with Z. M. Turovtseva and N. N. Semenov, and its applications, as well as the method for determining nitrogen and oxygen in steel developed by S. L. Mandelstam jointly with O. B. Falkova.

Both works were published respectively in the Journal of Analytical Chemistry and Factory Laboratory. The reports were very lively and were accompanied by a large number of questions and comments.

In the second half of the day, for 2–3 hours, discussions took place among a narrow circle of specialists. G. S. Landsberg talked with Prof. Bischoff, Dr. G. Bergmann (Dortmund), Dr. G. Goyer, and Dr. D. Louvev (Leverkusen) on questions of hydrogen-bond spectroscopy, a problem to which much work by G. S. Landsberg and his students has been devoted. S. L. Mandelstam held discussions with Prof. Kaiser and his collaborators, with Prof. Mannkopf, Prof. Bartels, and two collaborators, and with Dr. Nordmeyer, in which various questions of plasma physics and spark discharge were discussed in detail, based to a considerable extent on work carried out in the Spectral Laboratory of the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences. The discussions were very lively and, apparently, useful for their participants. They ended with a request that offprints of our works be sent.

To visit our embassy in Bonn we had to travel from Dortmund along the entire Ruhr region. On both sides,

MEETINGS AND CONFERENCES

Along the railway there are numerous enterprises of the Ruhr. Traces of enormous wartime destruction are still visible; but most of the buildings have already been restored or rebuilt, and Ruhr industry is working at an intensified pace. Traces of destruction are also visible in Cologne. The building of the Cologne cathedral suffered, apparently, little, and almost all the damage has been repaired, so that the cathedral is open and functioning. But many old small churches in Cologne have been destroyed and are far from restored, and some, apparently, will not be restored. The location of the government in Bonn has made this relatively small city unusually lively, crowded with residents and automobiles. Both Cologne and Dortmund—larger cities—do not make such an impression, although life in them too is sufficiently animated.

Of course, the few days we spent in Dortmund gave us an opportunity to become acquainted only with a certain part of the spectroscopic work being carried out in the FRG, mainly with work on applied spectral analysis. A large circle of spectroscopic work, and moreover of a more theoretical character, is being conducted in a number of other spectroscopic centers of Germany, which German scientists insistently invited us to visit both during the above-mentioned conference and at the meetings that we had in Amsterdam. Of considerable interest are the works being carried out in the laboratories of Göttingen, Kiel, Düsseldorf on problems of atomic spectroscopy, and in the laboratories of Freiburg, Stuttgart, and Munich on questions of molecular spectroscopy. However, the limited time at our disposal did not allow us to follow up on these invitations.

Nevertheless, all the impressions obtained from acquaintance with certain spectroscopic works in the FRG make it possible to supplement the impressions gained from visiting Dutch laboratories and participating in the VI International Colloquium.

Let us try to summarize these impressions briefly. First of all, one would like to give a comparative assessment of what we saw abroad and of the work in spectroscopy that is being carried out in our country in the USSR. In July of the current year, i.e. one month after our return, the X All-Union Conference on Spectroscopy, convened by the Spectroscopy Commission of the USSR Academy of Sciences, took place in the city of Lvov. A more detailed report on this Conference may be found in my article published in the journal Priroda. I shall point out only that the Conference brought together 1500 participants and heard and discussed about 300 reports on various questions of atomic and molecular spectroscopy. Of course, we had already previously known well the scope, merits, and shortcomings of the work in spectroscopy being conducted in our country. However, the Lvov conference, the most extensive of all the spectroscopy conferences held in our country, made it possible once again to verify our impressions. In the unanimous opinion of all Soviet participants in the International Colloquium, the level of the reports at our conferences is on average higher than that of the reports at the Amsterdam Colloquium. The best of the reports delivered in Lvov considerably surpass, in the interest of the questions posed, in the results achieved, and in the depth of theoretical interpretation, the most interesting reports that we heard abroad. Of course, one should bear in mind that the more theoretical problems of molecular spectroscopy did not find full reflection at the Amsterdam Colloquium, as I wrote above. But despite this reservation, we have every reason to consider that the level and scope of work on spectroscopy in the Soviet Union are quite high and in most fields do not lag behind, and often surpass, work abroad.

However, we are compelled to note our considerable lag in questions of spectral instrumentation and in general questions of

organization of scientific work in spectroscopy. In these respects there is much that ought to be learned from our foreign colleagues. Serious organizational improvements in the sense of the working environment—spaciousness and convenience of work premises, abundance of equipment, both basic and auxiliary, and the ratio between scientific and technical personnel—would bring the conditions of our work closer to those of many foreign laboratories and would make it possible to increase significantly the effectiveness of our research.

It is also necessary to state that knowledge abroad of Soviet work of the last 15 years is wholly inadequate, owing to the poor dissemination of our scientific literature and insufficient acquaintance with the Russian language. Complaints about this circumstance were heard everywhere. For better information about the state of our science, the following easily implementable measures are needed: a) to provide articles in our journals with brief summaries in foreign languages; this, in the general opinion of foreign scientists, will give them the opportunity to find their bearings in our literature and to select articles of interest; then it will already be much easier to find a way to become acquainted with selected works, whereas the translation of all articles indiscriminately is beyond anyone’s capacity; b) to recommend the publication of reviews of interesting groups of works in foreign journals, carefully selecting the authors of our reviews. Some foreign journals, for example Nuovo Cimento and Spectrochimica Acta, provide their pages for such publications; c) to facilitate the translation of good Soviet books into foreign languages, for example by means of an organized recommendation sent to the German Democratic Republic, where a certain number of Russian books and reviews are translated into German. Thus, for example, Prof. Smit (Utrecht, Holland) informed us that V. L. Granovskii’s book “Electric Current in Gases,” recently translated into German, has become a handbook in Dutch laboratories engaged in gas discharges.

The cordial attitude of foreign scientists and the sincere interest shown by them in our scientific achievements once again confirm the need to enliven international scientific contacts. It is necessary to make wider use of sending our scientists to international conferences, and it is very important to include in our delegations a sufficient number of young, talented scientists, for whom trips of this kind can be especially fruitful—provided, of course, that they know at least one foreign language. Quite timely is the invitation of foreign scientists to our congresses and meetings, as well as the organization of certain international congresses in our country. The considerable organizational difficulties connected with this will be justified by the significance that the measures indicated will have for reviving our contacts and raising the authority of our science.

G. S. Landsberg