THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICS IN INDIA*

P. Ramanna

By the beginning of our century, physical research in India was being carried out only in a few universities and a few special institutions, such as, for example, the Meteorological Department of the Government of India and the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science in Calcutta. Despite the existence of these institutions, it may generally be said that the conditions for conducting physical research were unsatisfactory, and that only the last decade has brought a noticeable improvement in the conditions for research work in the physical sciences.

The Department of Meteorology, founded in 1876, had at its disposal several observatories in various parts of the country; these observatories collected information on the movement of clouds and on the character of winds. This department also had under its authority the astrophysical laboratory at Kodaikanal (South India) and at Alibag (near Bombay), which collected and analyzed geomagnetic data. Such data have been collected over a number of years and are one of the principal sources of geomagnetic information for this part of the globe. The Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science was founded in 1876 in Calcutta with the aim of giving impetus to the development of research work, as well as of organizing contacts among organizations and private individuals located in various parts of the country and interested in scientific research. At present this Association is the organizing center for research in physics, chemistry, and mathematics. The Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore was founded in 1911 through the combined efforts of Tata and the governments of various states. The purpose of this institute was the development of technological processes and the conduct of research in physics, chemistry, metallurgy, and various engineering problems.

Despite these circumstances, scientific research in general encountered difficulties caused by a lack of funds, on the one hand, and insufficient support from the government, on the other; in addition, the weak industrial development of the country as a whole had an effect. Nevertheless, the first scientific works were carried out in Calcutta: on the generation and propagation of electromagnetic waves—by Bose (J. C. Bose), on thermal ionization in stars—by Saha (M. N. Saha), and, finally, on quantum statistics, which were carried out in the twenties by Bose (S. N. Bose) and are well known to physicists throughout the world. At the University of Calcutta, Raman (C. V. Raman), together with his coworkers, carried out intensive work on the investigation of the scattering of light, culminating in the discovery of the phenomenon that came to be known as the Raman effect.

* Translated from the manuscript. The article was written specially for UFN.

Soon after the beginning of the Second World War, the Government of India came to the conclusion that, in order to be able to use science for military purposes, it was necessary to develop scientific research systematically in all directions. In connection with this, the government organized the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research. The tasks of the Board included the creation, maintenance, and management of laboratories, workshops, and institutes, as well as the organization of further scientific and industrial research. A plan was drawn up for creating a network of state laboratories covering all branches of science. This plan began to be implemented only after the country attained independence in 1947.

In 1945, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was established in Bombay, with Bhabha (H. J. Bhabba) as its director. This institute was subsidized jointly by Tata, the Government of the State of Bombay, and the Central Government of India. At present this institute is known as a national center for the improvement of scientific personnel and for scientific research in the fields of nuclear physics and mathematics. The work of this institute proceeds in two directions: physics and mathematics. Experimental physicists concentrate their attention on the study of cosmic rays and nuclear interactions at low energies. Using emulsions without backing and a telescopic system of counters, variations in the intensity of cosmic rays at great heights above sea level and the spectrum of the primary heavy component of cosmic rays were studied. Studies were also carried out on the penetrating component of cosmic rays at a depth of 3000 meters below the earth’s surface in the gold mines at Kolar. Apparatuses consisting of a large number of Wilson chambers were installed on mountain summits for the study of heavy mesons and hyperons. Millimicrosecond techniques are used to study large air showers. Other investigations are devoted to the angular distributions of nuclear reactions and to neutron scattering. The institute has a cascade generator, with the aid of which inelastic neutron scattering and photodisintegration are studied. The spectrum and angular correlation of the radiation of various isotopes are studied by means of spectrometers of various types. Work continues on the study of the phenomena of nuclear magnetic resonance. In the field of instruments for nuclear research, numerous electronic circuits and several types of multichannel amplitude discriminators and time analyzers have been created for various investigations. The installation of a computing machine intended for wide use is being completed. The institute has a permanent department engaged in the design and manufacture of various types of counters and radiation detectors of various kinds. In the field of theoretical physics, work is being carried out on the theory of elementary particles and the theory of the solid state.

With the formation of the national government in 1947, the organization of a network of national laboratories was begun under the direction of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. In six years, 14 national laboratories were opened, covering all branches of science and located in all parts of the country. The chief task of these laboratories is to eliminate the gap between scientific research and its use for the purpose of raising the welfare of the people. These laboratories also conduct research on fundamental problems that require considerable expenditures of time and human labor and that under ordinary conditions cannot be carried out in universities. The National Physical Laboratory, directed by K. S. Krishnan, among other investigations conducts work in the following directions: service to broad research work on its own standards, research and standardization of raw materials for industry by means of laboratory and production tests. This laboratory has at its disposal—

in liquid helium and conducts studies of the magnetic properties of metal single crystals at low temperatures. Alongside this, at low temperatures heat capacities and various other constants are investigated. The laboratory includes a department of electron microscopy and spectroscopy. Questions connected with solids play the principal role here, especially the thermionic properties of metals and alloys. Work is being carried out on the study of semiconductors. From this laboratory a large number of industrial enterprises receive technical assistance and guidance.

The Institute of Nuclear Physics and the Institute of Radio Physics are financed jointly by the Government of India and the University of Calcutta. These institutes provide the possibility of higher training for scientific workers in the fields of nuclear physics and electronics. The first institute has a cyclotron and carries out work on nuclear spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic induction. The second specializes in the creation of various electronic circuits and is engaged in the study of the upper layers of the atmosphere with the aid of ionospheric sounding equipment. The Bose Institute in Calcutta conducts research on problems of physical chemistry, the physics of high polymers, and cosmic rays. It also has an electron microscope, and microbiological work is carried out within its walls.

In Bangalore, in the laboratory of the Indian Academy of Science—the Raman Institute—research is concentrated on fundamental questions of crystallography, chiefly on the elastic and optical properties of crystals and their luminescent characteristics. The laboratory has assembled an extensive collection of diamonds and other rare specimens of crystals.

At the Physical Research Institute in Ahmadabad, the variation in the intensity of cosmic rays and its connection with meteorological data are studied. The ionosphere and the atmosphere are also studied there, and research is conducted in certain branches of theoretical physics.

The Defence Science Organisation, belonging to the Ministry of Defence, came into existence after the proclamation of independence and sets as its aim the carrying out of research directly connected with the needs of the country’s defence, such as, for example, ballistics and aerodynamics. The Organisation is located in Delhi and is housed in the very same building as the National Physical Laboratory.

In 1948 the Government of India established the Atomic Energy Commission, headed by Bhabha (H. J. Bhabha); the construction of a research reactor of medium power was envisaged for determining the possibility of the practical application of the energy of nuclear fission. In 1953 the Department of Atomic Energy was formed, comprising the following divisions: geological research, physics, radiochemistry, metallurgy, engineering, as well as biology and medicine.

From the very first moment of its emergence, the Atomic Energy Commission, and later the Department of Atomic Energy, were closely connected with the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, and the work of the physics divisions was carried out almost entirely in the laboratories of the Tata Institute. At present, among other problems, the physics divisions are studying the slowing down and diffusive properties of neutrons in various media, using both steady and pulsed neutron sources. Theoretical questions connected with the slowing down of neutrons at low energies are being considered. The work of the physics divisions will expand considerably with the full commissioning of the “swimming-pool” reactor, as well as of an NRX-type reactor*). Meanwhile

*) NRX—National Research Experimental reactor (Canada). Ed. note.

At present, crystal spectrometers and various kinds of selectors intended for work at operating reactors are already being designed and built.

Construction of the “swimming-pool” reactor was begun in August 1955. Enriched uranium fuel was supplied by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Research Establishment, and the reactor was started up and brought to criticality in August 1956. In cooperation with the Government of Canada (under the plan adopted in Colombo), work is continuing on the construction of an NRX-type reactor, which is expected to reach critical operation in mid-1958.

From all that has been said above, it is clear that the most substantial achievements in the field of physics have been made during the last few years. This circumstance is very encouraging, especially if one takes into account the numerous difficulties that arise on the path of scientific development in our country. One such difficulty is the country’s backwardness in the development of technology, which makes it necessary to import most of the necessary laboratory equipment; importing equipment, of course, increases costs and delivery times. It may be hoped, however, that within the next few years the situation in this respect will improve, since the government’s plans aimed at creating industries producing machine tools, electronics, and large electrical equipment have already begun to be implemented. The problem of a shortage of qualified scientific and technical personnel is likewise being addressed by the government in many ways, and it may be assumed that in a few years it will no longer constitute a serious obstacle.